The study of human aging. Why do people grow old and die

Aging is an inevitable, natural process that humanity has always dreamed of definitively unraveling and one day defeating. Someone was driven by pride, the desire to equal God. Someone simply dreamed that people dear to their hearts would always remain young, beautiful, healthy and live forever.

The concept itself is multifaceted. It means changes that occur over time, which can have both positive and negative effects. In relation to things, aging is not always tantamount to destruction. Sometimes it can indicate an improvement in quality over the years, as is the case with wine. Speaking of biological aging, they mean the gradual deterioration of the functions and properties of the body, leading to inevitable death.

The English writer Aldous Leonard Huxley very accurately described the attitude of people to the aging of their own body: “Knowing that any ambition is doomed to disappointment in the hands of a skeleton has never prevented most human beings from living as if death were nothing more than an unfounded rumor.” However, science has always tried to learn about why and how age-related changes occur, and to learn how to resist them.

Human aging is a series of biological metamorphoses that occur during natural development, from birth to maturity, old age and death. For most people, old age is characterized by:

• graying or thinning hair;
• loss of skin tone;
• the formation of wrinkles;
• decrease in muscle strength;
• bone loss, etc.

An active lifestyle, including exercise and proper nutrition, can slow down the aging process and promote a long and productive life. Genetics (inherited physical characteristics) also play a role in aging and death. People whose parents or grandparents live to a ripe old age are more likely to live long.

Thanks to advances in science, changes in living conditions, the aging process of humanity today takes place over a longer period of time than ever before. Great strides have been made in economically developed countries, where the aging of the population has been slowed down, and the average life expectancy today reaches 85 years. This is due to several factors:

• successful social and demographic policies against the rapid aging of the population;
• elimination of many diseases of early childhood and adolescence;
• development of advanced treatments for diseases that in the past led to early death.

However, human aging is the main cause of suffering, disease and death in our time.

Gerontology, biogerontology and other sciences study the aging process and try to find ways to prevent age-related pathologies and destruction of the body, maintain health and prolong human life. The most ambitious, promising goal of scientists is slow aging. Many dream of developing a "magic pill" that will reverse this process.

At the same time, scientists are discussing the possible social consequences of a radical increase in human life expectancy, in connection with possible scientific breakthroughs in the fight against aging.

Each species has a different normal lifespan. In most organisms, death occurs shortly after the reproductive phase of life ends. This is not so obvious in relation to people. However, the aging of a woman occurs quite rapidly, when the childbearing age ends and menopause begins.

Levels of the hormone estrogen begin to fall, which leads to the gradual cessation or cessation of menstrual bleeding. After menopause, when menstrual bleeding stops completely, which means conception, pregnancy and childbirth are no longer possible, an active aging process of a woman starts:

• a decrease in the level of female sex hormones leads to the fact that the ovaries and uterus are reduced; vaginal tissues become thinner, drier, less elastic, atrophic vaginitis develops, which in severe cases is accompanied by itching, bleeding, pain during intercourse;
• Some of the changes that begin around menopause (such as lower hormone levels and vaginal dryness) may interfere with sexual activity.
• sebaceous glands in the skin produce less secret, which leads to the rapid formation of wrinkles, aging of the face, body;
• along with skin aging, negative changes in the musculoskeletal system occur, there is a high risk of developing osteoporosis (bone fragility);
• the state of the circulatory system deteriorates sharply;
• often develop cardiopathology, etc.

Intensive aging of a woman has common features with age-related changes in men. So the aging of the skin of the face in both sexes occurs under the influence of free radicals.

Free radicals are normal by-products of biochemical reactions in the body that take place using oxygen. However, the accumulation of free radicals is often the result of negative environmental influences. It can change the functions of cells, causing them to be damaged.

Under the influence of free radicals, proteins can be transformed, including collagen, which is one of the main components of connective tissue, which provides support for organs and elasticity of blood vessels. Cross-linking changes the form and function of collagen molecules.

In men, the change in the level of sex hormones is less sudden. A decrease in testosterone production leads to a decrease in sperm production and the extinction of sexual desire (libido). But these changes in the body of men occur gradually.

Although blood flow to the penis gradually deteriorates, most men can have erections and orgasms throughout their lives. However, the erection is reduced in time, more stimulation is required to maintain it. The interval between erections increases.

Erectile dysfunction (impotence) is associated with diseases that affect the blood supply to the genitals, including:

• cardiopathology;
• atherosclerosis;
• diabetes.

Skin aging in the stronger sex occurs gradually, there are no jumps characteristic of the fair sex during. At the age of 45 years and beyond, their sebaceous glands produce a stable amount of secretion, so facial aging is slower compared to similar aging processes in women, and the stronger sex is less prone to early wrinkling.

Also, gradually, there is a process of aging of muscles, ligaments and bones in men. At the equator of life, most of those who lead a healthy lifestyle are still in excellent physical shape.

However, the aging of the cells of the male body gradually occurs, as a result, the body becomes less able to perform its normal functions:

• muscles lose strength;
• hearing and vision become less acute;
• reflexes slow down;
• erectile dysfunction develops;
• lung capacity decreases;
• the ability of the heart to pump blood deteriorates;
• the immune system is weakened and cannot effectively fight infections and diseases.

Progeria: premature aging in children

This pathology is also known as Hutchinson-Gilford syndrome. It is an extremely rare genetic disease.

The word itself comes from the Greek adjective progeros, which translates as "prematurely old."

Pathology manifests itself in childhood. Due to premature aging, the child is rapidly turning into a "little old man." There are various forms of progeria, but the classic variant of the clinical picture is Hutchinson-Gilford syndrome.

In the world there are, according to various sources, 350-400 people diagnosed with premature aging. It is believed that pathology occurs with a frequency of 1 case per 20 million newborns of both sexes and all ethnic groups. One person in 4-8 million has a chance of becoming a parent of a child with progeria. Parents who already have a child with progeria have a 2-3% risk of having a child with the disease again.

When born, a baby with this genetic disorder looks like a normal newborn. Signs of premature aging appear for the first time in the time period from 10 months to 2 years of his life.

Symptoms of pathology:

• problems associated with growth;
• lack of subcutaneous fat and muscle mass;
• hair loss, including eyelashes and eyebrows;
• early signs skin aging;
• frequent hip dysplasia;
• change in mobility in other joints;
• visible veins;
• atherosclerosis, which is complicated by cardiopathologies.

Despite belonging to a particular ethnic group, patients with progeria have a similar appearance. For those diagnosed with premature aging, unusual features are characteristic:

• head larger than usual;
• small jaw bones;
• thin nose resembling a beak;
• protruding ears;
• visible blood vessels;
• slow development and change in the shape of teeth;
• high, shrill voice.

Progeria does not affect the development of the brain of the child and his intelligence, and it is not contagious, contrary to the assertions of some ignoramuses.

Different types of plants and animals age differently. For example, some reptiles, fish, and mammals are characterized by delayed or negligible aging. So Carolina box turtles live up to 138 years. Icelandic cyprina (bivalve mollusk) lives to be 400 years old.

Most of the biochemical reactions that provide human life, long before the emergence of multicellular organisms, were developed by single-celled bacteria. These single-celled organisms reproduce themselves by dividing into two equal halves. Some of their descendants are still thriving today. They live, share and, apparently, do not age. Scientists have found some evidence that the processes of growth and division are important factors in keeping these cells young.

When multicellular organisms develop, some of their cells (germ cells) are destined to become sperm or eggs as part of the next generation. The other cells (somas) that make up the body will never become part of the offspring. Non-dividing cells gradually die, leading to aging and death of the body.

In the human body, some types of somatic cells never divide again after reaching maturity. The brain, skeletal muscle, and heart contain large numbers of postmitotic cells.

human aging

This is a progressive deterioration of physiological functions associated with increased vulnerability to negative environmental factors, leading to a loss of viability.

This phenomenon is a complex process consisting of several features:

• an increase in the likelihood of death with age;
• physiological changes, which, as a rule, lead to a decrease in the functionality of the body;
• increased susceptibility to certain diseases.

In the broadest sense, human aging reflects all the changes that occur during life:

• growth;
• development;
• reaching maturity.

For young people, aging is just growing up, with some benefits: curfew» and going to bed late, more independence.

In adulthood, this process is somewhat different attitude. The joy of a new candle disappears, among others crowning a birthday cake. It is hard not to notice some harmless, but not pleasant cosmetic changes: gray hair, wrinkles. Average age is also the time when people begin to notice a decline in physical fitness. Even professional athletes are not able to avoid these changes.

For example, a recent study of marathon runners found that their running literally slowed down as they got older. Some decline in physical abilities is a normal sign of aging.

It begins at conception and continues for as long as we live. At any point in time, throughout life, the state of the organism depends on the genetic component and environmental experience. The stages of aging of an organism reflect the genetic ability to adapt and "repair", as well as the cumulative damage from pathological processes.

Today it is customary to conditionally divide old age into several periods:

• early - from 65 to 74 years;
• medium - from 75 to 84 years;
• late - from 85 years.

As we age, all body systems show a decline in performance. Growth, tissue regeneration slows down and their degeneration begins. Although the aging of each person has individual characteristics, there are common signs that are characteristic of each of the systems.

For example, aging of lung tissue cells begins to occur, lung function worsens, and the area of ​​the alveolar surface decreases.

Old age is accompanied by a generalized reduction in the production and activity of hormones. Metabolic disorders are more common in the elderly.

Diabetes is a frequent companion of old age. This pathology has many causes, but the main mechanism involves the inability of skeletal muscles to absorb glucose. The effect of aging is that over time they become less sensitive to insulin.

Recent studies show that older people are often at risk of nutritional deficiencies. This is due to the fact that in old age, the threshold of satiety decreases in people against the background of hormonal changes and disorders in the functioning of the nervous system.

Theories of aging

There are many concepts that try to explain the causes of aging. The most famous of them are the following theories of aging:

• disposable soma;
• accumulation of mutations;
• hormonal-genetic;
• mitochondrial;
• epigenetic;
• free radicals;
• mitochondrial;
• somatic mutations;
• evolutionary-genetic.

No theory of aging is able to explain all aspects of this process, but most of them take one of two approaches:

• people are genetically programmed to grow old and die;
• natural wear and tear is an explanation of the cause of aging and death.

According to the hormonal theory of aging, the main culprit of negative age-related changes in the body is the hypothalamus, which controls the production of hormones that affect growth and development. It is believed that over time, its sensitivity increases and hormonal imbalance develops, which is the main cause of aging.

Numerous studies have shown that human cells grown in the laboratory divide about 50 times before they die. The exceptions are cancer cells, which have unlimited growth, and some brain and muscle cells that do not divide after birth. According to the cellular theory of aging, with a decrease in cell division in the body of an elderly person, the functioning of the body also begins to slow down, which leads to aging and, ultimately, to death.

Another scientific theory suggests that genes change as a result of random mutations that accumulate over time, gradually leading to the effect of aging and disease. Environmental factors such as x-rays, ultraviolet radiation and toxic chemicals can all contribute to this process. All cells have the ability to repair damaged DNA, but sometimes the repair mechanisms fail, and mutations accumulate, which are also a factor in the development of cancer.

Aging is a biological process of age-related deterioration of functions and properties. The science of human aging teeters at the intersection of conflicting theories and puzzling data.

Gerontologists have not yet come to an agreement as to how the actual aging of the body differs from diseases, old age.

Medical science today has studied quite well many of the signs of aging, changes in cells, tissues and organs that occur with age. Human life is maintained through a variety of biochemical reactions that affect the physical condition of the body and mind. Pathological age-related changes are observed in the speed and effectiveness of many of these reactions. However, many of these changes are secondary effects of aging rather than primary causes.

It seems that the cause of aging is a complex of different mechanisms that operate in parallel and interact with each other to create changes throughout life. Including, these are the processes of oxidation, glycosylation, etc.

Signs of human aging

Gerontologists are trying to find the reason why older people are becoming more vulnerable to disease and disability. For example, a long-term study of the Institute on Aging in Baltimore (BLSA) has been ongoing since 1958. A group of volunteers is examined many times over a long period of time. In the course of it, many curious discoveries were made (about 800!). In particular, scientists have come to the conclusion that even those people who remain healthy, retain good cognitive abilities, lose a significant part of their brain volume at the end of their lives. And this is a completely normal sign of aging.

Some of the changes that people used to see as normal signs of aging may actually be signs of potential disease. For example, sudden changes in personality. Among the townsfolk, there is a persistent belief that a person becomes irritable, depressed, withdrawn, becoming older. However, an analysis of long-term data, as part of the Baltimore study, showed that the personality of an adult, as a rule, does not change after 30 years. Young merry fellows and jokers remain the same, celebrating anniversary after anniversary. Scientists suggest that significant personality changes are not normal signs of aging. On the contrary, they can be early symptoms of illness, dementia.

The rate and progress of cell aging can vary greatly from person to person. But as a rule, the effect of aging is inherent in the cells of every organ of the body. Moreover, changes can begin quite early.

• For example, around the age of 20, the lung tissue begins to lose elasticity, and the muscles chest shrink a little slower. As a result, the maximum amount of air that the body receives during inspiration decreases.
• In the intestines, the production of digestive enzymes is reduced, which affects the ability to absorb nutrients and maintain their balance in the body.
• accumulate in blood vessels body fat. They lose flexibility, atherosclerosis develops.

Although scientists have studied the main signs of aging well, questions remain at the most basic level:

• what is the main cause of aging in tissues and cells;
• why pathological changes occur;
• what are the biological processes underlying these changes.

How well the organs perform the functions assigned to them by nature depends on the state of their cells. In some organs and tissues, dead cells are not replaced by new ones, and their number decreases. The number of cells in the testes, ovaries, liver, kidneys markedly decreases as the body ages. When the number of cells becomes too low, the organ cannot function properly. Thus, the functionality of most organs and systems decreases in old age.

Not all organs lose large numbers of cells. For example, healthy older people retain most of their brain cells. Significant losses occur mainly in patients who have had a stroke or in elderly people who are susceptible to progressive loss of nerve cells, neurodegenerative pathologies such as Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease.

Decreased function of one organ, due to disease or natural aging, can affect the function of another. For example, if blood vessels narrow as a result of atherosclerosis, the functioning of the kidneys worsens, as the blood flow to them decreases.

Often the first signs of aging are observed on the part of the musculoskeletal system. Decreased visual acuity. Hearing gets worse.

Most of the functions of the internal organs are also impaired with age. The functional capabilities of the body reach their peak shortly before the 30th birthday, and then their gradual but continuous decline begins. But even with this decline, most of the functions remain adequate, as most organs begin to use the functional reserve.

For example, if half of the liver cells are destroyed, the remaining healthy ones are more than enough to maintain the normal function of the organ.

Not gradual aging, but pathologies, as a rule, are responsible for the loss of functionality of organs and systems in old age.

While many functions remain adequate, the decline in others makes older people less able to withstand a variety of stresses, including:

• excessive physical activity;
• extreme temperature changes in the environment;
• psychoemotional disorders.

Some organs are characterized by delayed aging. Others have a chance to "fail" earlier, for example:

• heart;
• blood vessels;
• urinary organs;
• genitals;
• brain.

The main function of the skin is to protect the body from the environment. This is achieved by creating a barrier that regulates temperature, retains liquid and absorbs ultraviolet radiation.

• With age, the dermis decreases in thickness by about 20%.
• As it becomes thinner, it loses its normal blood supply and sensitivity.
• The ability to retain internal heat is deteriorating.
• The skin becomes fragile.
• Aging of the skin of the face and hands begins before age-related changes in the dermis of other areas of the body.
• Regeneration slows down.
• The number of sweat and sebaceous glands decreases, their productivity decreases.
• Wrinkles appear.
• The number of neurons that provide sensitivity to the skin decreases by 30% over a period of 10 to 90 years.
• Subcutaneous fat deposits change in the elderly. Muscles, blood vessels and bones become more visible under the skin due to the thinning of the subcutaneous fatty tissue of the extremities. Fat deposits accumulate mainly on the abdomen and thighs.
• Skin aging goes hand in hand with disorders metabolic processes.

• With age, the bones decrease in size, their density decreases.
• They become brittle.
• The risk of fractures increases.
• Often people get a little shorter with age.
• Muscles tend to lose strength and flexibility.
• Disrupted coordination.
• There are problems balancing the body in space.

Muscle tissue is the main producer of energy, which is released as a result of complex metabolic processes. When muscles contract, heat is generated. It is necessary to maintain normal body temperature, which ensures the success of various biochemical reactions.

• Already in the third decade, a general decrease in the size, elasticity and strength of muscle tissue begins.
• Loss of muscle mass continues throughout later life. Muscle fibers are becoming smaller in diameter, due to a decrease in ATP, glycogen, myoglobin and a decrease in the number of myofibrils.
• As a result, as the body ages, muscle activity decreases. A person needs to make more efforts to complete the task.

Bones become weaker and more fragile with age. In women, bone density loss accelerates after menopause because estrogen production decreases, which helps prevent bone breakdown.

Bones become less dense, in part because they contain less calcium. The amount of this mineral decreases as the body absorbs less calcium from food. In addition, levels of vitamin D, which helps the body use calcium, may also decrease.

Some are weakened more than others. Most vulnerable:

• the head of the femur, which is hip joint;
• radial and ulnar ends of the bones of the hand on the wrist;
• bones of the spine (vertebrae).

To prevent bone destruction, degeneration of joints, muscles, and at the same time to slow down the aging of the skin of the face and body, experts recommend increasing calcium intake.

• The general recommendation for older adults is 1,000 mg of calcium per day.
• Menopausal women and men in their 80s are advised to further increase their daily intake of this mineral by 200 mg.
• If a person is not getting the recommended amount from their diet, a doctor may recommend calcium supplements.

Another human ally in the fight against aging of the musculoskeletal system is vitamin D.

• Adults are advised to consume 600 international units(IU) of a given nutrient per day.
• The recommended dose may be increased by 200 IU for the elderly, after 70 years of age.

Residents of warm countries do not experience a lack of vitamin D, thanks to sunlight. But the inhabitants of the northern latitudes in winter time are often deficient.

Physical activity helps against aging of bones, joints, muscles. Walking and running are especially helpful in slowing down bone loss and strengthening your musculoskeletal system.

The levels and activity of some hormones produced by the endocrine glands decrease with age.

• In particular, the level of growth hormone decreases, which leads to loss of muscle mass.
• The level of aldosterone decreases, which increases the risk of dehydration.
• Insulin, which helps control blood sugar levels, becomes less effective and resistance develops. And also its production may decrease.

Since it is responsible for moving glucose from the blood to the cells, where it can be converted into energy, age-related changes provoke jumps in blood glucose levels after eating. Moreover, it takes more time for this indicator to return to normal. Metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes develop.

To prevent insulin resistance and related pathologies, regular fitness classes and a special diet are recommended.

Cells of the immune system lose their former activity with age. Their functions are to search for and destroy foreign substances, such as:

• dangerous bacteria;
• cancer cells.

The decline in immune system activity may partly explain several phenomena associated with aging:

• oncological pathologies are more common in older people;
• vaccines tend to provide less protection for older people;
• some infectious diseases (pneumonia, influenza, etc.) are more common among the elderly and more likely to lead to death.

With age, allergy symptoms in patients may become less severe. As the activity of the immune system decreases, autoimmune diseases become less pronounced.

Although the immune system declines with age, the main hallmark of aging is an increase in inflammation. This is evidenced by increased levels of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines, which may contribute to the development of several age-associated pathologies, such as:

• Alzheimer's disease;
• atherosclerosis;
• arthritis.

The human body changes with age, due to changes that occur in individual cells and in entire organs, which lead to dysfunctions of systems and change the appearance of people.

In the course of a person's life, the molecular functioning of vital components of cells deteriorates, including:

• membranes;
• extracellular matrix;
• enzymes;
• structural proteins.

Violations accumulate faster than the body corrects them, resulting in irreversible, progressive changes. Old and defective molecules accumulate inside and outside the cells.

The redox potential of some cells changes in response to these chemical modifications. This leads to a change in gene expression, affects the activity of enzymes, changes in signaling pathways. Cellular mechanisms of utilization and repair slow down. Some damaged cells release chemicals that harm other, healthy cells.

The neuroendocrine and immune systems are among the first to become victims of cell aging, their balance is disturbed, they are able to send chemical signals that trigger the mechanism of approaching death in various tissues. The processes of apoptosis and necrosis begin, especially among non-dividing cells of the heart, skeletal muscles and the substantia nigra of the brain. The functionality and condition of organs and tissues deteriorate over time, due to the fact that their cells die, and stem cells stop dividing, and tissue regeneration no longer occurs.

In 1952, English biologist Sir Peter Brian Medawar defined aging as "a set of changes that increase a person's chances of dying." Indeed, every sign of aging in the human body leads to a rapid increase in pathological age-related changes and the risk of death, soon after the end of maturity. Evidence of this is the demographic indicators of population aging and causes of death.

Scientists believe that a variety of variations are observed not only in the rate of facial aging, but also in the quality of internal age-related changes that occur in all older people. They depend on:

• family history;
• lifestyle;
• accumulated during childhood, adolescence, adulthood, injuries, pathologies, etc.

Obviously, human aging is associated with a wide range of physiological changes that not only increase the risk of death, but also limit normal functions, making it more susceptible to a number of diseases.

Although some functions, such as hearing and flexibility, begin to deteriorate early in a child's life, active functional decline begins after the peak of sexual activity, around the age of 19 years.

Population aging as levels show demographic indicators mortality is growing exponentially. The decline in human functionality tends towards a linear graph. It is characterized by gradual changes:

• decrease in height and weight, due to loss of muscle and bone mass;
• slowing down the metabolic rate;
• increase in time spent on reactions;
• decrease in some memory functions;
• decreased sexual activity;
• menopause in women;
• functional decrease in hearing, smell and vision;
• deterioration of kidney function;
• suppression of immune function;
• decrease in physical performance;
• multiple endocrine changes.

The most common diseases of the elderly, the number of which increases with age, are:

• cardiopathology;
• type 2 diabetes;
• arthritis;
• kidney disease.

The incidence of some pathologies, such as sinusitis, remains relatively constant throughout adulthood. And the frequency of asthma episodes is even on the decline.

The most common causes of death in the elderly are:

• heart diseases;
• cerebrovascular disease;
• Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases;
• pneumonia and others chronic diseases respiratory tract.

• Over the years, the pulse of an elderly person becomes slower, the heart may increase.
• The walls of blood vessels lose their elasticity, as a result, the load on the heart increases.
• Blood pressure rises more often, hypertension and other cardiopathologies develop.

• walking;
• swimming;
• cycling, etc.

It is also important to eat a healthy diet. The menu should have more functional products:

• vegetables;
• whole grains;
• fruits;
• edible algae;
• leafy greens;
• nuts;
• fish.

• added sugar;
• trans fats;
• table salt.

• give up smoking, as addiction leads to a pathological change in the arteries, an increase blood pressure and heart rate;
• fight the effects of psycho-emotional stress through effective relaxation;
• get enough sleep, as the quality of sleep plays an important role in the health of the heart and blood vessels.

In general, the digestive system is less affected by aging than most other parts of the body.

• The tone of the muscles of the esophagus is slightly reduced, but this does not significantly affect the movement of food.
• Food is removed from the stomach a little slower. It cannot accommodate the previous volumes, as it becomes less elastic. But in most people who lead a healthy lifestyle and do not have chronic pathologies of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), all these changes are insignificant.

However, certain age-related changes in the gastrointestinal tract cause common problems in some relatively healthy people.

Because the body produces less lactase, the enzyme that digests milk, with age, older people are more likely to develop lactose intolerance. There are complaints of increased gas formation, diarrhea after eating dairy products.

The movement in the colon slows down a bit. As a result, the risk of constipation increases. Many factors can exacerbate the problem, including:

• diet low in fiber;
• lack of liquid in the diet; taking certain medications (diuretics, iron preparations, etc.);
• some chronic pathologies (diabetes, irritable bowel syndrome, etc.).

The liver tends to become smaller as the number of its cells decreases. In addition, the production of enzymes is reduced. With age, this organ clears smaller volumes of blood, which leads to an increase in the toxic load on the body.

senile dementia

The nervous system changes with age. There is loss of neurons, both in the brain and in the spinal cord. However, the body can partially compensate for these losses in several ways:

• as some neurons die, new connections are formed between the rest of the nerve cells;
• new nerve cells can form in some areas of the brain, even in old age;
• the brain has more cells than it needs to do most activities.

Levels of chemicals involved in message passing influence age-related changes in the brain. Most of them are decreasing, but some are increasing. Nerve cells may lose some of the receptors that transmit signals. The blood flow to the brain is reduced. As a result, functional characteristics and cognitive capabilities deteriorate.

Older people are slower to react and perform various tasks. Some mental functions such as short term memory, mastering new knowledge, the ability to recall words, may decline after 70 years of age.

Around the age of 60, the number of spinal cord cells begins to decrease. This change can affect strength or feel.

As a person ages, neurons lose their dendrites, which impairs synaptic transmission. A person distinguishes smells, tastes worse, loses sight, touch and hearing over time.

Depression can be the result of impaired synaptic activity. Studies show that about 25% of residents of nursing homes have signs of this mental disorder. Depression is one of the most common (reversible) causes of weight loss.

Science has long been looking for ways to combat aging. To reduce the rate of pathological age-related changes, modern medicine uses:

• special diets;
• hormone therapy;
• antioxidants;
• stem cells, etc.

Particular progress has been made in the field of cosmetology, which today has learned to "slow down" the aging of the face. With the help of salon procedures, thalassotherapy, creams, skin aging can be slowed down.

Delayed aging and proper nutrition

A number of diets, drugs and food additives people attribute the effectiveness against aging. Unfortunately, the hype around some of them is often undeserved. However, some healthy eating habits and foods do slow down the onset of old age.

• atherosclerosis;
• obesity;
• cognitive impairment;
• some types of cancer, etc.

A recent study compared the calorie intake of Japanese sumo wrestlers (they live an average of 56 years) and Okinawan men on a low-calorie diet (their average life expectancy is 77 years). The conclusion was obvious: a high-calorie diet is harmful to health and reduces life expectancy.

With age, the fight against chronic dehydration of the body is especially relevant. Many older people do not drink enough water, simply because they are used to drinking little. This leads to a violation of hydration at the cellular level. The cause of such common age-related complaints as chronic fatigue, headaches, constipation, is very often a lack of fluid. Therefore, experts recommend drinking at least 8 cups of water a day.

In addition, specialists in therapeutic and preventive nutrition advise to include the following products in the menu more often:

• vegetables, whole grains, fruits, legumes and others that are rich in dietary fiber and help regulate the digestive system, lower cholesterol, blood pressure, chronic inflammation, control blood sugar and reduce the risk of diabetes, obesity;
• blueberries, rich in vitamins C and E, antioxidants that can prevent or reduce cell damage;
• salmon, herring, sardines and other marine fish high in omega-3 fatty acids;
• olive oil, which helps to reduce the level of "bad" cholesterol (LDL) and increase "good" (HDL) in the blood;
• natural yogurt, which is a good source of calcium and prevents bone loss with age.

Nobody wants to look older than their chronological age. Although it is customary to say that wrinkles are witnesses of what has been experienced, a kind of “road map” of life, but hardly anyone likes to see a face in the mirror that resembles a contour map of the world. Therefore, humanity has long been struggling with the signs of facial skin aging, and has been very successful in this fight.

People have come up with 1000 + 1 home remedies. Professional cosmetologists and scientists have developed many high-tech anti-aging procedures. The beauty industry offers miraculous anti-aging serums and creams. Much, for the prevention of age-related changes in the dermis, a person can do on their own by changing their lifestyle, habitual diet, routine of daily skin care.

Creams and other anti-aging cosmetics

The main cause of premature wrinkles is sun exposure. "Healthy" tanning, including in solariums, leads to irreversible changes in the cellular structure of the dermis. Most wrinkles appear precisely because of ultraviolet radiation. Therefore, the usual day cream is not enough, only those beauty products for day care that have an additional sun protection effect effectively prevent aging.

The hands and face are especially vulnerable to solar damage due to the fact that these parts of the body are often within reach of ultraviolet rays. Even in winter, experts recommend using creams with a sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 15 for the face and hands.

The basis of human skin is a layer consisting of a plexus of collagen and elastin, proteins that provide the ability of the skin to stretch. When the dermis is stretched, the protein matrix acts like a spring to pull it back. As we age, the network of collagen-elastin fibers weakens, the dermis loses its support, sagging under the influence of Earth's gravity.

Therefore, it is important that beauty products, including serums and anti-aging creams for the skin of the face, hands and body, contain collagen, elastin and active ingredients that stimulate their production. If the composition of cosmetics contains only hydrolyzed elastin or marine collagen, the effect of them will be insufficient to prevent negative age-related changes. But they will help improve the hydration of the dermis.

In order for an anti-aging product to slow down the decrease in tone and the appearance of wrinkles, to keep the skin young, it must contain:

• peptides;
• hyaluronic acid;
• retinol;
• copper;
• vitamin C;
• sulfur;
• zinc;
• vitamin K;
• linoleic acid;
• niacinamide;
• vitamin E and some other active substances.

However, anti-aging cosmetics cannot significantly affect the production of elastin and collagen, as they have a superficial effect on the skin. Special salon procedures have the best effect.

To "wake up" the cells of the dermis, start the production of elastin and collagen, delay aging, modern cosmetology offers a variety of professional procedures:

• placentotherapy;
• plasmolifting;
• mesotherapy;
• biorevitalization;
• ridolysis;
• phototherapy, etc.

Home anti-aging care should include:

• the use of special products focused on a certain age, gender, type of dermis;
• regular mechanical and chemical peeling at home;
• face and body masks that improve skin hydration, dermis tone;
• a balanced and varied diet that satisfies the body's need for all vitamins and minerals.

Exercise for the mind and prevention of senile dementia

Cognitive abilities often decline with age. It takes more time to understand new information, remember familiar words, remember dates, names famous people. Some preventive recommendations allow you to preserve memory, despite old age.

• Experts advise regular exercise. Physical activity increases blood flow to all organs and systems of the body, including the brain.
• Proper nutrition also benefits the brain. The basis of a healthy menu should be herbal products. Experts recommend choosing protein foods that are low in saturated fatty acids, such as fish, skinless poultry, lean varieties meat.
• Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to "confusion" in the head, so it is better to give up "strong" drinks.
• "Fitness" for the brain also helps prevent age-related cognitive impairment. It is useful to solve crossword puzzles, choose new routes for car trips and hiking, and master musical instruments.
• Communication in society helps drive away stress and depressive states that contribute to cognitive decline. You should use every opportunity to meet with family and friends, telephone conversations, correspondence.
• The decrease in elevated blood pressure indicators correlates with a decrease in vascular diseases may reduce the risk of developing dementia.
• Some studies have shown that smoking in middle and old age can increase the likelihood of developing dementia. Quitting smoking can reduce the risk and rate of degenerative brain changes.

If a person or his relatives notice a deterioration in memory, you should consult a doctor, as a serious illness may be hidden behind seemingly completely natural changes.

Human aging is a complex biological process that involves gradual wear and tear and degenerative changes in all body systems. The study of the aging process has been going on for many centuries, various hypotheses and theories have been put forward that would help in the future to significantly increase the quality and life expectancy.

Despite the centuries-old studies of aging, it is not possible to come to an unambiguous conclusion why irreversible degenerative changes in our body begin to occur at a certain age. There are over three hundred different hypotheses and assumptions on this topic.

Ancient philosophers associated this natural process with the irreversible consumption of vital energy, the loss of essential chemicals, enzymes, a decrease in the rate of metabolic processes, intoxication, and poisoning of the body with products of its own intestinal flora. Long-term accumulation of harmful compounds by cells leads to a slowdown in the recovery of all tissues and organs.

Today, aging and old age are associated with functional disorders of the higher nervous system, endocrine disruptions, dehydration of tissues, harmful effects of cosmic dust, radiation, and hypoxia on humans.

The science of aginghuman

Given the fact that studies of the aging process have been going on for more than one century, it is not surprising that a separate science is devoted to this area - gerontology, which also considers the issues of preventing and slowing down the wear mechanisms of the body. Among the huge number of proposed hypotheses that are put forward to explain the concept of natural human aging, gerontologists tend to single out three.

Theory #1

The human body wears out, like the body of any other living being on the planet.

In nature, everything is subject to aging, over time, genes accumulate a large number of mutations and changes.

A significant role in the development of degenerative processes is played by the influence of free radicals. A certain amount of free radicals is always present in the human body, controlled by the immune system, helps fight viruses and bacteria, activate the required enzymes, promotes hormone production, energy release. Excess of the number of aggressive molecules leads to a violation of the structure of the protein, genetic information.

Chemical reactions involving free radicals do not pass without a trace, pathological processes cause a violent reaction of the immune system, which subsequently weakens. Such an excessive load can lead to the development of oncology, diseases of the cardiovascular, urinary and other systems. Unprotected cells are exposed to free radicals, as a result of which the integrity of membranes, lipoprotein membranes, necessary for the full exchange, nutrition, division, regeneration, and respiration of cells is violated. Pathologies of biochemical reactions lead to the development of diseases and premature aging of a person.

Theory #2

With age, the ability to quickly, high-quality self-renewal of the body is lost, with which there are no problems in the first half of the life cycle.

At a young age, cells recover very quickly, almost regardless of the nature of the damage. If the regeneration process is more intense than the negative factor affects, this has a minimal effect on the state of health.

From a certain age, the renewal mechanisms slow down significantly, and later they are completely lost, which inevitably leads to death. It is not yet possible to accurately explain this phenomenon, various philosophical assumptions related to natural selection, the need to constantly adapt to changing environmental conditions, and nature's lack of interest in a generation that has already reproduced offspring come to the rescue.

Theory #3

The development and course in the human body of processes leading to self-destruction, wear of vital systems.

The third reason is a logical consequence of the second. First, nature gives strength, the ability to quick recovery, maintaining physical health until reaching reproductive age and the appearance of offspring. Later, the interest of nature weakens, the mechanisms of aging are triggered. The opinions of many scientists on this issue agree, old age and aging are not inevitable, just nature itself found them necessary.

Evidence that eternal youth is possible - the results of the study of immortals cancer cells, bacteria, protozoa, almost unlimited restoration of cells of the epidermis, blood, gastric epithelium. The study of aging suggested that life cycle cell is programmed, hence the emergence of a separate science that considers the biology of cell death. Nature considers it necessary for living beings to leave after their reproductive function has been completed, and also suggests various factors that help the body gradually wear out.

From this it can be concluded that the key to eternal youth lies not in the invention of the miracle pill. It is not yet possible to change the program of natural self-renewal of cells, as well as their further death, because this is laid down at the gene level. Science will need more than one decade to succeed in this area. You can indirectly affect the body in known ways: try to lead a healthy lifestyle, monitor nutrition, do not forget about physical activity, and avoid stress.

Signs of aging

Withering is a natural biological process, involving age-related changes that begin long before old age itself, but inevitably lead to a gradual, increasing disabling of the ability to adapt to environmental conditions, to recover from the resulting violations.

The main indicators of a person's biological age are the disruption of vital systems, a decrease in the ability to adapt, the development of diseases that imply a decrease in life expectancy.

The processes associated with the approach of old age occur at different cellular levels and proceed at different speeds. Scientists distinguish between physiological aging, associated with the natural wear and tear of life systems, and pathological premature aging, which is characterized by a general acceleration in the rate of age-related changes.

Diagnosis of premature aging involves: consideration of the calendar age, which is the number of years lived, as well as biological age, which determines the nature of changes in the body, taking into account time and the functional state of life systems.

The criteria for assessing the rate of decline are:

• Subjective signs accelerated wear of organs and tissues are considered non-specific, may be an indicator of the presence of certain diseases in a person. If the results of laboratory and clinical examinations do not allow us to confirm the presence of the disease, such symptoms serve as indicators of early aging: weakness, fatigue, low work capacity, lack of vigor even after a good rest, problems with concentration, memory, restless sleep, poor or unstable emotional condition.
• Objective signs- deterioration of the skin condition, its elasticity, elasticity, the formation of wrinkles that are not characteristic of the age category of a person, the early appearance of gray hair, age spots, problems with teeth, the growth of warts, decreased visual acuity, hearing, significant changes in posture associated with curvature of the spine.
• biological age of the body which is determined on the basis of blood pressure, ECG, the magnitude and stability of the heart rate, the maximum breath holding time, the results of testing visual acuity, hearing, attention and memory.

Risk Factors for Premature Aging

From the external environment:

• social, associated with a low standard of living (poor medical care, poor social protection population, low incomes, frequent or chronic stressful situations);
• environmental (pollution of water, air, soil, and hence products);
• lack of a healthy lifestyle (malnutrition, smoking, addiction to alcohol, lack of physical activity, insufficient sleep, rest);
• infectious diseases.

From the side of the internal environment:

• poisoning, intoxication;
• violation of the natural regulation of the body;
• metabolic problems;
• decreased immunity;
• bad heredity.

Stages of human aging

The aging process of each person is individual, and the biological age depends on many external and internal factors, which include heredity, working conditions, environmental pollution, lifestyle, workloads.

Physiological aging occurs in stages depending on the number of calendar years lived.

30-40 years old

The period is characterized by the appearance of the first signs of aging, the condition of the skin worsens, which is especially noticeable on the face, in the neck area, wrinkles form. Most people by this age have some excess weight, often fat deposits are especially noticeable in the abdomen. Women gradually lose the ability to fertilize, the risk of developing pathologies during pregnancy and childbirth increases. In the body of a man, the level of testosterone goes down, hair loss, baldness is possible.

40-60 years old

Reaching the age of forty does not at all promise a rapidly approaching old age, but the work of many vital systems can fail, immunity decreases, metabolism slows down, therefore body weight increases, fat deposits accumulate, skin condition continues to deteriorate, new wrinkles appear. This age gap for men and women is characterized by a decrease in the level of sex hormones. After 50 years, the female body loses the ability to fertilize, menstruation stops, menopause occurs. Change hormonal background usually provokes the occurrence of various unpleasant symptoms, a feeling of heat, hot flashes, frequent mood swings. The female body begins to lose calcium and minerals. The age range of 40-60 years for men is often associated with the appearance of problems with the prostate gland.

60-80 years old

The period of visible aging of a person, serious changes in the skin, loss of elasticity, firmness, the presence of deep and pronounced wrinkles, changes in the contours of the face and body. The human body loses water, the level of collagen decreases, muscle dystrophy occurs, which is also associated with a lack of physical activity, a sedentary lifestyle.

Closer to the age of 70, due to the loss of calcium, bone density decreases, and in women this process proceeds with greater intensity than in men. The density of bone tissue and the entire musculoskeletal system of a 70-year-old woman is half that of a 30-year-old woman.

Serious changes affect the cardiovascular system. Jumps in blood pressure, frequent diagnosis of hypertension, heart problems are associated with a loss of elasticity in the walls of the arteries. Hearing noticeably deteriorates, visual acuity decreases, the stability of all organs and systems weakens, memory problems appear. Many people do not stop leading an active lifestyle, but their opportunities are often limited by their state of health, the need to constantly monitor their own condition. Retirement and a sharp change in the usual regime has a bad effect on the body - due to a powerful psychological factor and a significant decrease in activity during the day.

After 80 years

The restorative functions of the body continue to decline, usually a person needs careful monitoring of blood pressure, heart rate, and therapy that supports and corrects these indicators. Age-related changes associated with a deterioration in vascular tone, a decrease in the elasticity of their walls lead to a weakening of blood flow. Insufficient blood supply to tissues, which can lead to their death, violation of the biochemical processes of the brain, too slow mechanisms of regeneration of the body provoke the development of sclerosis. The disease, in addition to senile forgetfulness, implies damage to the vessels of the brain - atherosclerosis, in which the elasticity of the arteries deteriorates, and fatty and cholesterol deposits form on their inner surface. The narrowing of the lumen of the vessels causes circulatory disorders in all organs, tissue death in case of blockage, the development of a heart attack or stroke when the plaque is torn off.

The appearance of lethargy, sleep disturbance, constant headaches, loss of balance, forgetfulness should be the reason for contacting a specialist who will recommend the necessary examination. The patient must be selected medications to prevent further sclerosis, improve blood flow and supply the brain with a sufficient amount of oxygen by relaxing the smooth muscles of the vessels. It is necessary to take medications to increase concentration, memory, attention, mental performance. At this age, activity is very important, daily walks in the fresh air, despite possible physical limitations, you should try to move more, walk.

The rate of appearance of age-related changes depends on many factors. Timely identification of the source negative impact on the body helps to prevent premature aging and slow down the inevitable physiological process

Features of aging men and women

The natural processes of aging equally affect the female and male organisms, but have their own characteristics associated with various regulatory hormones, and the opinion that with age the stronger sex only “gets younger” is fundamentally wrong. The study of human aging processes allows us to assert that up to 45-50 years old, age-related changes in men and women proceed at approximately the same rate. Having crossed the fifty-year milestone, the withering of the male body occurs three times faster. The physiology of women is arranged in such a way that at the age of 60-70 they have better health, look younger and feel better.

Women

According to statistics, the average life expectancy of women is 6-8 years longer than that of men. At the same time, there is an opinion that the female body ages earlier, with all the ensuing consequences. Nature took care of women, endowed them with a more resistant and enduring organism during the reproductive age. They face the serious task of procreation, bearing children, giving birth and caring for them. Features of the aging process of the female and male body are explained by the activity of various hormones that affect the condition of the skin, hair, well-being, and the operation of all systems.

By the age of 50, the female body is steadily changing, the follicles in the ovaries are gradually depleted, the production of estradiol and other female hormones is reduced. Over time, sclerotic changes affect the ovaries themselves. The restructuring of the endocrine system leads to degenerative changes in the mammary glands, uterus, Bladder. Along with the drop in estrogen levels, the amount of adipose tissue increases. The arrival of menopause is accompanied by periodic sensations of heat, called hot flashes. At this age, women notice a decrease in sexual desire, a lot of anxiety is caused by palpitations, pressure surges, mood swings, and headaches. Low estrogen provokes increased sweating, systematic bloating. With age, the amount of lubrication secreted by the vagina decreases, its walls become thinner, and osteoarthritis develops.

Men

The main male hormone is testosterone. It is necessary for the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, is responsible for facial and body hair, gives a lower voice, a tougher character. The main female hormones are estrogens, which are produced for an established metabolism, proper growth and development of the uterus, regulation of bone density, maintaining a balance between muscle and adipose tissue, which gives a feminine figure.

The high level of testosterone in the male body really delays the formation of wrinkles, keeping the skin in good shape. It is believed that thanks to this hormone, the density of the skin is 30% greater, it retains moisture longer, and remains elastic longer. Over time, age-related changes appear more pronounced, and wrinkles have deep folds, sagging of the tissues of the face and neck appears. After forty years, a reddish tint of the skin is especially noticeable, symptoms of rosacea are often present. Closer to the age of fifty, the level of the main male hormone decreases markedly, this affects the activity of the sebaceous, sweat glands, the skin loses moisture, becomes thinner, and a vascular network appears. It is believed that the tendency to ptosis, sagging tissues, is more pronounced in the male half. With age, muscle volume decreases, excess weight gain occurs, libido decreases, erectile dysfunction manifests itself.

In addition to menopause, which is inherent in the female body, there is also andronopause, which is observed in men on average 10 years later. Expansion of the walls of blood vessels with subsequent hot flashes, increased heart rate, headaches, drops in blood pressure and frequent mood swings are typical symptoms of menopausal changes in men. Low testosterone levels affect the functioning of the prostate gland. It grows and thickens, there are frequent complaints of problems with urination, deterioration of sexual function, which can cause psychoneurotic changes.

If we talk about the aging of the brain, it is men who are more prone to impaired attention, memory, orientation in space. The reasons lie in the presence of serious chronic diseases, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, excess weight, suffered in the past stroke. Women have every chance of getting such disorders during prolonged stressful situations, depending on outside help, lack of attention, lack of communication from relatives and friends.

Human aging is a natural biological process laid down at the genetic level. It is not yet possible to completely overcome old age. However, everyone is able to improve the quality of life in the future, prevent premature wear of the body, slow down the development of age-related changes in organs and systems. The secret of prolonging youth, a healthy fresh look, good health, as always, is quite simple - it is a moderate and balanced diet, the exclusion of bad habits in the process of life, regular physical exercise, sports, physical activity, favorable and calm environment at home and at work.

Few people know, but in the XVIII century the average was only 24 years. After 100 years, this number has doubled - up to 48 years. Now a newborn can live an average of 76 years. Given the latest discoveries in biology, scientists believe that this figure will remain unchanged for a long time.

Introduction

Today, the search for "rejuvenating apples" and the answer to the question of why is concentrated in the field of studying the genetic structure of cells, while less and less attention is paid to the role of stress and diet in people's lives. Those who want to achieve immortality turn to anti-aging clinics, paying $ 20,000 each year for hormone therapy, DNA analysis and space surgery. However, these experimental methods do not give any guarantees of immortality - experts simply promise to prolong life.

Let's find out together when and why a person ages, what are the signs and causes of aging, and how to slow down the aging process.

The concept of "aging"

The word "old age" is now associated with anti-aging cosmetics and surgical operations. This is due to the fact that modern science more focused on learning outer space and invention the latest technologies. They simply forgot about immortality.

But Dr. John Langmore, a professor at the University of Michigan, and his group have "looked" into cells, into the very essence of human life. In particular, he studied the DNA molecule and found at its ends a chain of repeating pairs of enzymes, which were later called "telomeres". They work as protective "caps" at the end of chromosomes, which over time prevent the molecules from splitting in half, which leads to aging and death of a person.

What are "telomeres"

Scientists note that as a person gets older, the length of telomeric chains decreases. Eventually they become so short that cell replication causes fatal errors or missing pieces in the DNA sequence, hindering the cell's ability to replace itself. This limit point, when the cell has lost its DNA life code and cannot reproduce itself, is called the Hayflick limit. This is a measure of how many times a cell can copy itself before it dies.

Some cells in our body have a very high Hayflick limit. For example, the cells that are inside our mouth and in our intestines are constantly being erased and replaced. Indeed, they appear to be able to grow telomeres even into adulthood. Then scientists became interested in why some cells prevent the growth of telomeres with age, and some do not.

"programmed" cells

Dr. Langmore, using physical, biochemical and genetic methods to study the structure and function of telomeres, has developed a cell-free system to reconstruct the functional model of telomeres using synthetic DNA. And also revealed the mechanism by which telomeres can "stabilize", and the conditions that lead to their instability.

Protein factors "responsible" for stabilizing the ends of chromosomes have been cloned and studied. made it possible to directly visualize the structure of the telomere model. This interesting study led to many promising discoveries.

Scientists have discovered an important enzyme that can "turn off" telomeres so that the DNA molecule can bifurcate indefinitely. It's called telomerase. But as we get older, the number of telomerase in cells decreases. This is the answer to the question of why the human body ages.

Five main theories

So, scientists have proven that death occurs due to the loss a large number cells. There are several theories that explain how the Hayflick limit is expressed in the cells of our body. Let's consider them in more detail:

1. Hypothesis about the error. This theory defines the errors that can occur in chemical reactions in the production of DNA and RNA, since the metabolic mechanism is not 100% accurate. Cell death may be the result of these uncorrected errors.

2. Theory of free radicals. Answers the question of why a person ages, in his own way. Uncontrolled ones can damage the membranes that surround cells and cellular DNA and RNA molecules. This damage eventually leads to cell death.

This theory is currently being hotly researched. Experiments on mice have shown that a 40% reduction in calorie intake leads to a doubling of their life expectancy and a decrease in the number of free radicals. In addition, scientists have found that vitamins E and C absorb them well.

3. Crosslinking theory states that the aging of living organisms is due to the random formation (by crosslinking) of "bridges" between protein molecules, which then interfere with the production of RNA and DNA. This cross-linking can be caused by many chemicals normally found in cells as a result of metabolism, as well as by pollutants (eg, lead and tobacco smoke).

4. The brain hypothesis answers the question of why people age quickly in a different way. This is due to a "breakdown" in the homeostasis of body functions, especially in the control of the hypothalamus over the pituitary gland, which in turn causes a breakdown in the control of the endocrine glands.

5. Autoimmune theory. It was proposed by Dr. Roy Walford in Los Angeles, who proposes that two types of immune system protein blood cells (B and T) lose their energy due to the "attack" of bacteria, viruses and cancer cells. And when B and T cells become faulty, they infect healthy cells in the body.

Why a person is aging: causes and signs

At some point in life, often around the age of 30, the tell-tale signs of aging begin to become apparent. They can be seen in everything: wrinkles appear on the skin, the strength and flexibility of bones and joints decrease, the cardiovascular, digestive and nervous systems undergo changes.

So far, no one can say for sure why a person is aging. But it is definitely revealed that genetics, diets, exercise, diseases and other factors influence this process.

Let's take a closer look at the signs and causes of aging of the main body systems:

1. Cells, organs and tissues:

Telomeres, which are found at the ends of chromosomes within each cell, prevent the DNA molecule from splitting over time;

Waste accumulates in cells;

Connective tissue becomes more rigid;

Maximum functional ability of many

2. Heart and blood vessels:

The wall of the heart becomes thicker;

The heart muscles begin to work less efficiently, pumping the same amount of blood;

Aortas become thicker, stiffer and less flexible;

Arteries supply blood to the heart and brain more slowly, which is the reason why a person ages, the signs are obvious.

3. Vital Functions:

It becomes harder for the body to control temperature;

The heart rate takes longer to return to normal after a workout.

4. Bones, muscles, joints:

Bones become thinner and less strong;

Joints - more rigid and less flexible;

The cartilage in the bones and joints begins to weaken;

Muscle tissue also loses its strength, this explains why a person ages, the reasons for this process.

5. Digestive system:

stomach, liver, pancreas and small intestine produce significantly less digestive juices;

The movement of food through digestive system slows down.

6. Brain and nervous system:

The number of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord decreases;

Abnormal structures such as "plaques" and "tangles" can form in the brain, leading to a deterioration in its performance;

The number of connections between nerve cells decreases.

7. Eyes and ears:

The retina becomes thinner, and the pupils become harder;

Lenses less clear;

The walls of the ear canal become thinner and the eardrums thicker.

8. Skin, nails and hair:

The skin will become thinner and less elastic with age, which is the reason why people age on the outside;

Sweat glands produce less sweat;

Nails grow more slowly;

Hair gets a gray color, and some even stop growing.

Symptoms of Aging

There are common symptoms of aging which include:

Increased susceptibility to infections;

Slight decrease in growth;

Increased risk of heat stroke or hypothermia;

Bones break more easily;

Slouch;

Slow motion;

Decreased overall energy;

Constipation and urinary incontinence;

A slight slowdown in the thinking process and memory impairment;

Decreased coordination;

Deterioration of visual acuity and decrease in peripheral vision;

hearing loss;

Sagging and wrinkling of the skin;

graying of hair;

The influence of sugar

People who love sweets will be disgusted to know that sugar "hastens" our old age. If you consume it in large quantities, you will soon quickly gain weight, and your body will become more susceptible to chronic diseases. They, of course, will slowly "introduce" into a person's life for a long time. However, every chronic disease negatively affects all cells in the body. Which is the reason why people age slowly.

Smoking

Even a child knows that smoking is bad for health. In New Zealand, for example, 5,000 people die every year due to the adverse effects of smoking (including passive smoking). That's 13 people a day!

Every cigarette you smoke will add wrinkles to your face. And in combination with a lot of sunlight, it also contributes to the appearance of dying cells on the skin.

Divorce

Yes, you are not mistaken! Breaking up with someone you loved deeply certainly has a negative impact not only on your psychological state, but also on your appearance and health.

In 2009, scientists conducted studies with identical twins, which found that separated couples look much older than those who have always been together.

sun exposure

The sun's rays have a positive effect on the human body, but to a certain extent. They can cause wrinkles on the skin, then it will become clear why some people age faster than others.

Excessive sun can lead to elastosis (reduced skin elasticity) and the appearance of numerous age spots on the face.

Phobias and stress

Recent studies have found that personal phobias and worries accelerate aging and add several years to your life. appearance. Chronic stress leads to a constant release which have a negative effect on the internal organs and tissues. They also contribute to the formation of free radicals, which is the reason why people age quickly.

How to slow down the biological clock

1. Learn to manage your fears and deal with your worries.

2. Calorie restriction significantly slows down your old age. Preliminary results from studies in monkeys show that rational diets can "slow down" age-related physiological changes.

3. Get regular exercise. After all, they contribute to the release of growth hormones.

4. Try to get enough sleep every day. Only during sleep can we fully restore all our strength.

5. Relax. Choose the relaxation method that suits you. Perhaps it will be dancing, reading books, listening to music, or simply taking hot baths.

In conclusion, we can say that we are all going to age, whether we like it or not. But we now know how to slow down this process, even at the cellular level. It is necessary not only to lead a healthy lifestyle, but also to minimize all the factors that negatively affect our body.

There are three main approaches to the study of aging.

In the first of them, certain indicators of the condition of the subjects are directly measured.

of people. Both cross-sectional studies are carried out to compare anatomical, functional and biochemical parameters in young and old, and their serial measurements in the same subject over long periods.

In this regard, a number of ethical and methodological difficulties become apparent. For example, in people of what age such studies can already begin? Can any true knowledge of the aging process be obtained from cross-sectional studies by directly comparing the state of the young and the elderly, whose life events and experiences differ significantly? To what extent is it permissible to impose unpleasant or even painful tests on subjects, especially the elderly, in order to demonstrate age-related disorders? How can the changes in the body caused by aging be differentiated from age-related diseases?

It is important for longitudinal studies to take into account their cost and the length of the periods between surveys, to maintain continuity in the work of staff and testing, and to determine the time during which initially recruited subjects can remain in the study. All these factors, as well as the relatively wide individual variation in the phenotype of older people, which can be signs of aging, greatly limit the ability to conduct such studies directly in humans.

In the second approach, animals of biological species other than humans are used as objects for experiments. The nature of the genetic code is almost universal throughout the animal world, and since the degree of influence of adverse environmental factors on the average life span of animals different types is relatively the same, it is theoretically justified to conduct such studies not only on mammals, but also on birds and even on invertebrates (Li:8, 1985). Due to the short lifespan of many animals of these species, it is also possible to conduct research over several generations. In addition, non-human animals were used in experiments that could not be performed on humans for ethical reasons. However, there are often significant difficulties in interpreting the results of studies in animal species other than humans in relation to human aging, especially when non-mammals have been studied. This significant disadvantage can be reduced if used to study primates. However, information about their aging and life expectancy, unfortunately, remains very limited. In addition, another problem arises - the high cost of such studies. In addition, one can expect significant difficulties in studying human aging in primates, taking into account the prevailing attitude in society today towards the permissibility of experiments on animals.

The third experimental approach to the study of aging is based on the study of a laboratory culture of normal human cells.

The limited lifespan of diploid mvrigo cells was first convincingly demonstrated by Haytsk and MoorBeaeu (1961) in a culture of skin fibroblasts obtained by biopsy. The period of life of these cells in vitro consisted of three stages: the initiation of a culture, rapid cell proliferation, and a gradual decrease in their ability to grow.

Cell growth in the primary culture begins most rapidly from a tissue explant of embryonic tissue. As the age of the donor increases, cell growth becomes more and more difficult and slows down. In isolated culture, diploid cells grow exponentially until they form a continuous layer on the surface of the vessel. And in the subculture, cells mitotically divide until they cover the entire surface available for their growth. Over time, the reproductive capacity of cells in a continuously increasing group decreases stochastically: after a certain number of subcultures, which characterizes a given cell strain, growth is irreversibly reduced. Such a decrease in the number of mitoses, regardless of the conditions in which the cell culture is located, was called the "Hauthian limit". This is an important element of the theory of programmed aging, which will be discussed below. For comparison: such limited growth of cells from tumor tissue or cultures transformed with t v Igo was not detected.

This three-stage life of t-v-ngo cells described by Huntskin (1965) was later refined and divided into four stages: the stage of decreasing growth potential (stage III), which begins when about 2/3 of the total life span of t-v-ngo has elapsed, and stage IV, in during which the cells are no longer capable of mitosis, but remain viable for a long time

1988) . In addition to human diploid fibroblasts, the limited lifespan of tvIgo and specific age-dependent morphological features
skeletal shifts were found in many other cell types, including arterial smooth muscle cells, bronchial epithelium, epidermal keratinocytes, glial cells, lens cells, liver cells, and T-lymphocytes. In all cases, an inverse relationship was established between the age of the explant donor and the number of doublings cell population (CRP) m ypro, as well as slower growth of explant cells and poorer recovery of cells from older donors after their subculturing.In cells cultured from individuals with several hereditary diseases, in which life expectancy yyo decreases, including Werner and Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndromes, and many signs of premature aging are found, including a significant decrease in CRV before the end of mitoses (review of these data is made by BMS and Zamyu, 1986).

Since the beginning of these studies, human cell cultures have been considered as an extremely important object in which increasing age-related shifts can be detected both at the cellular and subcellular levels. In addition, there was no need for cross-species comparisons. Thanks rapid growth t vigo cells and the possibility of long-term cryogenic storage of the material, this research method combines flexibility and cost-effectiveness. It should be noted that despite the significant analogies between aging-related changes, m yiro and m ytvo, it would be incorrect to consider cell culture systems as accurate models of aging processes.

human aging

human aging- like the aging of other organisms, it is a biological process of gradual degradation of parts and systems of the human body and the consequences of this process. While the physiology of the aging process is similar to that of other mammals, some aspects of the process, such as mental loss, are of greater importance to humans. In addition, psychological, social and economic effects are of great importance.

For humans, aging has always had a special meaning. For centuries, philosophers have discussed the causes of aging, alchemists have been looking for the elixir of youth, and many religions have attached sacred significance to aging. The results of experiments to increase the average and maximum lifespan of model animals (mice - an increase in life by 2.5 times) and organisms (yeast - an increase in life by 15 times, nematodes - an increase in life by 10 times) in recent years, as well as the discovery of the phenomenon of negligible aging in many animals (including humans at the stage of "survival") and organisms give hope that advances in science will soon slow down or reverse aging (to achieve the effect of negligible aging for younger people as well). Nevertheless, despite the mentioned successes, there is a fundamental possibility to at least seriously slow down aging, as well as the fact that aging is recognized as the main cause of death in developed countries, and human life proclaimed a core value in many countries, societies and governments have not yet realized the need to focus on the fight against aging, research in this area is underfunded. .

From the point of view of philosophy, the aging process is due to the natural degeneration of a colony of body cells under the influence of environmental factors. In humans and animals, during reproduction, the lost or damaged genetic information is replenished due to the effect of superimposing the properties of two individuals of the opposite sex at the gene level. That is, the principle of probabilistic compensation works. That is why it is possible for species to resist the harmful effects of the environment. In general, any multicellular organism on Earth can be considered as a complexly organized colony. unicellular organisms, which are capable of three stages of their evolution (what?). The aging process is caused only by the influence of external factors (relic radiation, negative environmental factors, etc.), which destroy the gene structures of the colony and contribute to their degeneration, since the body can be considered as a separate system that is not capable of reproducing and exchanging its body in terms of replenishment lost information at the third stage of development. There are theories, confirmed by scientific results, that the introduction of viruses and other carriers from the outside contributes to the replenishment of the disturbed order of genes and thereby delays the process of degeneration of body cells, that is, the aging process. Despite this, today the aging of the body is not only inevitable, but also a necessary process for any creature on Earth. There are philosophic and religious currents that introduce intellect into the rank of human properties, which is able to control the aging process as a carrier and exchanger of damaged genetic information. One can only hope that this is the first step towards the birth of super-beings who never age.

Theories of aging

All theories of aging can be conditionally divided into two large groups: evolutionary theories and theories based on accidental cell damage.

The former believe that aging is not a necessary property of living organisms, but a programmed process. According to them, aging has developed as a result of evolution due to some of the benefits that it gives to the whole population.

In contrast, damage theories suggest that aging is the result of a natural process of accumulating damage that the body tries to fight against, and differences in aging in different organisms are the result of different effectiveness of this fight.

The latter approach is now considered established in the biology of aging. However, some researchers still defend the evolutionary approach, and some others completely ignore the division into evolutionary theories and damage theories. The latter statement is partly the result of a change in terminology: in some recent writings, the term "evolutionary theories" refers not to "programmed aging" theories, which suggest the evolutionary occurrence of aging as a beneficial phenomenon, but to an approach that describes why organisms should age, as opposed to the question of the biochemical and physiological foundations of aging.

The hormonal-genetic approach consists in the fact that in the course of a person’s life, starting from birth, there is an increase in the threshold of sensitivity of the hypothalamus, which ultimately leads to hormonal imbalance and progressive impairment of all types of metabolism, including hypercholesterolemia, after 40 years. Therefore, the treatment of diseases of old age must begin with improving the sensitivity of the hypothalamus.

• Epigenetic theory of aging
• Mitochondrial theory
• Theory of somatic mutations
• Free radical theory
• Evolutionary genetic approach
• hormonal genetic approach

Reasons for aging

Research History

The first attempts at a scientific explanation of aging began at the end of the 19th century. In one of the first works, Weisman proposed a theory of the origin of aging as a property that arose as a result of evolution. According to Weisman, "non-aging organisms are not only not useful, they are harmful because they take the place of the young," which, according to Weisman, should have led evolution to cause aging.

An important step in the study of aging was a paper by Professor Peter Medawar before the Royal Society of London in 1951 entitled "An Unsolved Problem in Biology". In this lecture, he emphasized that animals in nature rarely live to an age when aging becomes noticeable, so evolution could not influence the development of aging. This work marked the beginning of a series of new studies.

Over the next 25 years, research was predominantly descriptive. However, since the late 1990s, a large number of theories have arisen that have tried to explain aging. For example, in a famous 1990 review of the literature on the subject by Caleb Finch, there were about 4,000 citations. Only at the end of the 1990s did the situation begin to clear up, and most authors began to come to general conclusions.

All theories of aging can be conditionally divided into two large groups: evolutionary theories and theories based on accidental cell damage. The former believe that aging is not a necessary property of living organisms, but a programmed process. According to them, aging has developed as a result of evolution due to some of the benefits that it gives to the whole population. In contrast, damage theories suggest that aging is the result of a natural process of accumulating damage over time that the body tries to fight against, and differences in aging in different organisms are the result of different effectiveness of this fight. The latter approach is now considered established in the biology of aging. However, some researchers still defend the evolutionary approach, and some others completely ignore the division into evolutionary theories and damage theories. The latter statement is partly the result of a change in terminology: in some recent writings, the term "evolutionary theories" refers not to "programmed aging" theories, which suggest the evolutionary occurrence of aging as a beneficial phenomenon, but to an approach that describes why organisms should age as opposed to the question of biochemical and physiological bases of aging.

Why aging occurs

Evolutionary genetic approach

The hypothesis that formed the basis of the genetic approach was proposed by Peter Medawar in 1952 and is now known as the “mutation accumulation theory” (Eng. Mutation accumulation theory). Medawar noticed that animals in nature very rarely live to an age when aging becomes noticeable. According to his idea, alleles that appear during later periods of life and that arise as a result of germ cell mutations are subject to rather weak evolutionary pressure, even if properties such as survival and reproduction suffer as a result of their action. Thus, these mutations can accumulate in the genome over many generations. However, any individual that has managed to avoid death for a long time experiences their effects, which manifests itself as aging. The same is true for animals in protected conditions.

Evolutionary-physiological approach

The theory of antagonistic pleiotropy predicts that there must be genes with a pleiotropic effect, the natural selection of which leads to aging. Several genes with a pleiotropic effect at different stages of life have indeed been found - sigma-70 in E. coli, telomerase in eukaryotes, but no direct connection with aging has been shown, moreover, it has not been shown that this is a typical phenomenon for all organisms, responsible for all the effects of aging. That is, these genes can only be considered as candidates for the role of genes predicted by the theory. On the other hand, a number of physiological effects are shown without determining the genes responsible for them. Often we can talk about compromises similar to those predicted by the theory of antagonistic pleiotropy, without clearly defining the genes on which they depend. The physiological basis for such compromises lies in the so-called "disposable soma theory" (eng. Disposable soma theory) . This theory asks how the organism should manage its resources (in the first version of the theory it was only about energy) between the maintenance and repair of the soma and other functions necessary for survival. The need for compromise arises from the limited resources or the need to choose the best way to use them.

Maintenance of the body should be done only as much as is necessary during the normal time of survival in nature. For example, since 90% of wild mice die during their first year of life, mostly from exposure to cold, resource investment in survival will only affect 10% of the population over time. Thus, the three-year lifespan of mice is completely sufficient for all needs in nature, and from the point of view of evolution, resources should be spent, for example, on improving the preservation of heat or reproduction, instead of fighting old age. Thus, the lifespan of a mouse the best way meets the environmental conditions of her life.

The disposable body theory makes several assumptions about the physiology of the aging process. According to this theory, aging results from imperfect repair and maintenance functions of somatic cells that are adapted to meet environmental needs. Damage, in turn, is the result of stochastic processes associated with the vital activity of cells. Longevity is controlled by the control of genes that are responsible for these functions, and the immortality of generative cells, unlike somatic cells, is the result of a large expenditure of resources and, possibly, the absence of some sources of damage.

How aging occurs

Molecular mechanisms

There is evidence for several critical mechanisms of damage to macromolecules, which usually operate in parallel or depend on one another. It is likely that any of these mechanisms may play a dominant role under certain circumstances.

In many of these processes, reactive oxygen species (in particular, free radicals) play an important role, a set of evidence for their influence was obtained quite a long time ago and is now known as the “free radical theory of aging”. Today, however, the mechanisms of aging are much more detailed.

Theory of somatic mutations

Many studies have shown an increase in the number of somatic mutations and other forms of DNA damage with age, suggesting DNA repair as an important factor in maintaining cell longevity. DNA damage is typical of cells, and is caused by factors such as harsh radiation and reactive oxygen species, and therefore DNA integrity can only be maintained through repair mechanisms. Indeed, there is a relationship between longevity and DNA repair, as demonstrated by the enzyme poly-ADP-ribose polymerase-1 (PARP-1), an important player in the cellular response to stress-induced DNA damage. Higher levels of PARP-1 are associated with longer lifespan.

Accumulation of altered proteins

Protein cycling is also important for cell survival, for which the appearance of damaged and excess proteins is critical. Oxidized proteins are a typical result of the influence of reactive oxygen species, which are formed as a result of many metabolic processes of the cell and often interfere with the correct functioning of the protein. However, repair mechanisms cannot always recognize damaged proteins and become less efficient with age due to a decrease in proteosome activity. In some cases, proteins are part of static structures, such as the cell wall, that cannot be easily broken down. Protein cycling also depends on chaperone proteins, which help proteins obtain the necessary conformation. There is a decrease in repair activity with age, although this decrease may be the result of overloading the chaperones (and the protoasome) with damaged proteins.

There is evidence that the accumulation of damaged proteins does occur with age and may be responsible for age-related diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and cataracts.

Mitochondrial theory

The importance of the link between molecular stress and aging has been suggested based on observations of the effect of accumulation of mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). These data were supported by the observation of an increase with age in the number of cells lacking cytochrome c oxidase (COX), which is associated with mtDNA mutations. Such cells often have disturbances in ATP production and cellular energy balance.

The mitochondrial theory of aging was first proposed in 1978 (mitochondrial theory of development, aging and malignant growth). Its essence lies in the fact that a slowdown in the reproduction of mitochondria in highly differentiated cells due to a deficiency of mitochondrial proteins encoded in the nucleus creates conditions for the emergence and selective selection of defective deletion mtDNA, an increase in the proportion of which gradually reduces the energy supply of cells.

Loss of telomeres

In many human cells, the loss of the ability of cells to divide is associated with the loss of telomeres at the ends of chromosomes, which are lost after a certain number of divisions. This is due to the absence of the enzyme telomerase, which is normally only expressed in germ and stem cells. It has recently been found that oxidative stress (excessive release of reactive oxygen species) can also have an effect on telomere loss, greatly accelerating this process in certain tissues.

Epigenetic theory of aging

Cells slowly lose repressed chromatin markers over time, which may be associated with cell differentiation in the body. The loss of repression markers should sooner or later lead to derepression of dormant transposons, respectively, to an increase in the amount of DNA damage caused by them, followed by activation of the cellular DNA repair system. The latter, in addition to participating in DNA repair, also cause unauthorized recombinations in telomeres. It is also possible that transposon recombinases can directly initiate such recombinations. As a result, extended sections of telomeric DNA are converted into rings and lost, and telomeres are shortened by the length of the lost circular DNA. This process accelerates the loss of telomeric DNA tenfold, and the subsequent apoptosis of most cells predetermines aging as a biological phenomenon. The proposed theory is an alternative to the hypothesis of genetically programmed aging and the hypothesis of aging as a consequence of the accumulation of errors and damage, explains the mechanism of accelerated loss of telomeres in the case of oxidative stress and DNA damage, as well as the relationship between aging and the occurrence of tumors.

System and network mechanisms

In the early stages of aging research, numerous theories were seen as competing in explaining the effects of aging. However, today it is believed that many mechanisms of cell damage operate in parallel, and cells must also expend resources to combat many mechanisms. In order to explore the interaction between all damage control mechanisms, a systems approach to aging has been proposed that attempts to simultaneously take into account a large number of such mechanisms. Moreover, this approach can clearly separate the mechanisms that operate at different stages of an organism's life. For example, the gradual accumulation of mutations in mitochondrial DNA often leads to the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and a decrease in energy production, which in turn leads to an increase in the rate of damage to DNA and cellular proteins.

Another aspect that makes the systems approach attractive is the understanding of the difference between different types of cells and tissues in the body. For example, cells that are actively dividing are more likely to suffer from mutation accumulation and loss of telomeres than differentiated cells. At the same time, it should be clarified that this thesis does not apply to rapidly and repeatedly dividing transformed and tumor cells that do not lose telomeres and do not accumulate mutations. Differentiated cells are more likely to suffer from protein damage than cells that rapidly divide and "dilute" damaged proteins with newly synthesized ones. Even if a cell loses its ability to proliferate due to aging processes, the balance of damage mechanisms in it shifts.

population approach

Another approach to the study of aging is the study of population dynamics of aging. All mathematical models of aging can be roughly divided into two main types: data models and system models. Data models are models that do not use or attempt to explain any hypotheses about the physical processes in the systems for which these data are obtained. Data models include, in particular, all models of mathematical statistics. In contrast to them, system models are built mainly on the basis of physical laws and hypotheses about the structure of the system, the main thing in them is the verification of the proposed mechanism.

The first law of aging is the Gompertz law, which offers a simple quantitative model of aging. This law makes it possible to separate two types of parameters of the aging process. Studies of the deviation of the law of aging from the Gompertz curve can provide additional information regarding the specific mechanisms of aging in a given organism. The best-known effect of this deviation is the plateauing of mortality at a later age instead of the exponential growth observed in many organisms. To explain this effect, several models have been proposed, among which are variations of the Strehler-Mildvan model and reliability theory.

System models consider many individual factors, events and phenomena that directly affect the survival of organisms and the birth of offspring. These models consider aging as a balance and redistribution of resources both in physiological (during the life of one organism) and in evolutionary aspects. As a rule, especially in the latter case, we are talking about the distribution of resources between the direct costs of the birth of offspring and the costs of the survival of parents.

Cellular response to aging

An important issue of aging at the level of cells and tissues is the cellular response to damage. Due to the stochastic nature of damage, individual cells age, for example, due to reaching the Hayflick boundary, faster than other cells. Such cells have the potential to threaten the health of the entire tissue. This threat is most pronounced among rapidly dividing stem cells, such as those in the bone marrow or intestinal epithelium, due to the great potential of such tissues to create mutant, possibly cancerous, cells. It is known that it is the cells of these tissues that quickly respond to damage by initiating the apoptosis program. For example, even low doses of radiation (0.1 ) induce apoptosis in intestinal epithelial cells, and even mild chemical stress induces apoptosis in stem cells of old mice.

As a rule, in such tissues, massive apoptosis is a sign of an increase in the number of cell damage. On the other hand, in other tissues, the response to an increase in the level of damage may be the arrest of cells at a certain stage of the cell cycle to stop division. The balance between apoptosis and the arrest of damaged cells is most important as a compromise between aging and cancer. That is, either the body must kill the damaged cells, or allow them to exist, increasing the risk of cancer. Thus, p53 and telomere shortening, important factors in inducing cell apoptosis, can be seen as an example of antigonistic pleiotropy, as discussed above.

To summarize, according to modern concepts, the cell ages as a result of the accumulation of damage. The rate of this accumulation is determined, first of all, by genetically determined costs for the repair and maintenance of cellular structures, which in turn are determined by the body to meet its environmental needs. Long-lived organisms have a higher cost (sometimes longer metabolism), resulting in slower damage accumulation. To combat the risk posed by damaged cells, the body has created a system of mechanisms to deal with them, which often involve a second set of compromises.

Sociology and Economics of Aging

Social aspects

The social status of each age group and its influence in society are closely related to the economic productivity of this group. In agrarian societies, the elderly have a high status and are the object of attention. Their life experiences and knowledge are highly valued, especially in pre-literate societies where knowledge is passed down orally. The need for their knowledge allows older people to continue to be productive members of society.

In societies with a high level of industrialization and urbanization, the status of older people has changed markedly, reducing the importance of older people, and in some cases even reaching negative attitude to old people - ageism. It turns out that the physical inability of older people to work has a relatively small role, and several other factors are responsible for the loss of significance. Among them, the greatest role is played by the constant introduction of new technologies that require continuous education and training, which are less accessible to old people. Of lesser importance is the large number of still fairly strong old workers, which limits the employment opportunities of the new generation and the reduction in the number of people who work for themselves, which could give the old people the opportunity to gradually reduce the number of jobs. In connection with the general increase in the level of education, the experience of older people, on the contrary, plays an ever smaller role.

Although older people are still highly active in some areas, such as politics, in general, older people are increasingly retiring at the end of their most productive period of life, which leads to problems of psychological adaptation to new conditions. First of all, problems appear in connection with a decrease in the influence of old people, a sense of their own lack of demand and the presence of a significant amount of free time. In addition, for a large number of people, financial problems become more acute in old age, although in many cases these problems fall on society.

Due to the availability of free time, family relationships are more likely to be the center of attention of older people. However, due to changes in the family structure in developed countries, large families have been divided and older people are increasingly not living near their children and other relatives. Because of this, societies face the problem of greater adaptability of older people to an independent existence.

An important factor in the sociology of aging is sexual and reproductive activity. In developed countries, men continue to become fathers even at the age of 65 and older.

Older people are characterized by resistance to change, although to a greater extent this is explained not by an inability to adapt, but by an increase in tolerance. To help the adaptability of older people to new conditions, special learning programs designed for this category of people.

Economic aspects

Due to the decline in the ability to perform most types of work in industrial and post-industrial societies, older people are gradually losing their sources of income. Thus, they must rely on their own savings, the help of children and society. Due to less confidence in the future, older people tend to save and invest instead of spending on consumer goods. At the state level, the old population is withdrawing from the labor force, increasing the burden on active workers and paving the way for industrial automation.

State social programs that help the elderly to exist in society have existed at a certain level since the time of the Roman Empire. In medieval Europe, the first law on the responsibility of the state towards the elderly was passed in England in 1601. Pensions proper were first introduced in 1880 by Otto von Bismarck in Germany. Today, most states have some form of welfare programs for senior citizens. Although these government programs and alleviate the burden of old age, they do not bring the elderly to the level of income characteristic of the young.

Health protection

Although the physiological effects of aging differ among individuals, the body as a whole becomes vulnerable to numerous diseases, especially chronic ones, with the onset of old age, requiring more time and money for treatment. Since the Middle Ages and Antiquity, the average life expectancy in Europe has been estimated at between 20 and 30 years. Today, life expectancy has increased significantly, resulting in an increasing percentage of the elderly. As a result, cancers and heart diseases typical of the elderly have become much more common.

Rising cost medical care causes certain problems both among the elderly themselves and for societies that create special institutions and targeted programs aimed at helping the elderly. Many developed countries expect a significant aging of the population in the near future, and therefore are worried about increasing costs to maintain the quality of health care at an appropriate level. Actions to overcome this problem include improving the efficiency of the health care system, more targeted care, supporting alternative health care organizations and influencing the demographic situation.

Cultural Variations

There is a lot of variation between countries both in the definition of aging and in attitudes towards it. For example, the retirement age varies between countries, ranging from 55 to 70 years. First of all, this difference is explained by differences in the average life expectancy and working capacity of older people. In addition, as noted above, there are significant differences between industrial and traditional agrarian societies. Whereas in the former the importance of old people is insignificant, in the latter old age is a sign of wisdom, and old people have a great influence on society.

Legal aspects

Although in most states certain rights and obligations are granted to a person starting from a certain age (the right to vote, the right to buy alcohol, criminal liability, etc.), older people are often deprived of certain rights. Typical examples are: the right to drive a car, which in many countries is limited by a maximum age (usually 70-75 years); the right to occupy certain positions (mainly leadership).

"Successful Aging"

In Western countries, the concept of “successful aging” is gaining popularity these days, which determines how aging should proceed in the best way, using modern achievements in medicine and gerontology. The concept can be traced back to the 1950s, but was popularized in the 1987 work of Rowe and Kahn. According to the authors, previous studies of old age have exaggerated the extent to which diseases such as diabetes or osteoporosis can be attributed to old age, and have criticized research in gerontology for exaggerating the homogeneity of the individuals studied.

The age composition of the population is usually depicted as an age-sex pyramid, in which the proportion of the population at each age is depicted depending on age. On such pyramids, population aging looks like an increase in the proportion of older people at the top of the pyramid at the expense of younger people at the bottom. The aging process, therefore, can be of two types: "aging from below", or a decrease in fertility, and "aging from above", or an increase in average life expectancy. In most countries of the world, aging from below is the larger of the two factors, while in post-Soviet countries, including Ukraine, it is the only one. For example, in Ukraine, population aging is partially offset by a drop in life expectancy (from 71 years in 1989 to 68 in 2005), both due to deteriorating medical care and increasing social inequality, and due to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. In the whole world, according to the UN, the percentage of the population over 60 years old was 8% in 1950, 10% in 2000, and is expected to be 21% in 2050.

Population aging has a significant impact on society. Older people are more likely to save money instead of spending it on consumer goods. This results in significant deflationary pressure on the economy. Some economists, especially Japanese ones, see advantages in this process, in particular the possibility of introducing industrial automation without the threat of increasing unemployment and solving the problem of overpopulation. However, the negative effect is manifested in the system of social security and pensions, which in many countries, mainly in Europe, are financed by taxes on the working part of the population, which is constantly decreasing. In addition, there is a significant impact on education, which is manifested both in a decrease in public spending and in a deterioration in the overall level of literacy due to the reduced ability of an aging population to adapt to rising standards. Thus, the control of population aging and the adaptation of society to new conditions are the most important tasks of demographic policy.

Attempts to increase life expectancy

The main direction of research in gerontology (the so-called biomedical gerontology) are attempts to increase life expectancy, especially in humans. A marked increase in life expectancy is already happening on a global scale, driven by factors such as general improvements in health care and higher standards of living. At the individual level, increasing life expectancy is possible through proper diet, exercise, and avoidance of potentially toxic factors such as smoking. However, predominantly all these factors are not aimed at overcoming aging, but only “accidental” mortality (the Meikham term in the Gompertz-Maikham law), which already today constitutes a small proportion of mortality in developed countries, and thus this approach has limited potential to increase life expectancy.

The question of whether life expectancy should be increased is now a matter of much debate at the political level, with the main opposition predominantly made up of representatives of some religious denominations. A number of public (RTD, WTA) and religious (Raelites) organizations are actively supporting work to significantly increase human life expectancy. Under the leadership of Mikhail Batin and Vladimir Anisimov, a comprehensive research program "Science against aging" is being developed.

Psychology of aging

The most noticeable changes in brain function during aging are the deterioration of short-term memory and the increase in reaction time. Both of these factors limit the opportunities for a normal existence in society and are the subject of a large number of studies. However, if old man gets more time to solve a specific task that does not require a large amount of modern knowledge, older people are only marginally inferior to younger people. In tasks that involve vocabulary, general knowledge, and activities to which a person is accustomed, the decrease in productivity with age is almost imperceptible.