Who flew on the Soyuz ship. Spacecraft "Soyuz T"

Under the direction of S.P. Korolev for the Soviet lunar program. Modern modifications of the ship make it possible to deliver a crew of three to near-Earth orbit. The developer and manufacturer of the ship is RSC Energia.

The ships of the series have made more than 130 successful flights and have become a key component of the Soviet and Russian manned space exploration programs. Since 2011, after the completion of the Space Shuttle program, they have become the only means of delivering crews to the International Space Station.

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  On April 16, 1962, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR issued a resolution on the development of the Soyuz rocket and space complex for a manned flight around the moon. The Soyuz complex began to be designed in 1962 at OKB-1 as a ship of the Soviet program for flying around the moon. At first it was assumed that under the program "A" a bunch of spacecraft and upper stages were to go to the Moon 7K, 9K, 11K. Subsequently, project "A" was closed in favor of separate projects for flying around the moon under the "North" program, using the "Zond" spacecraft / 7K-L1(with the help of the launch vehicle UR500K  "Proton"), as well as landing on the moon, using the L3 complex as part of the orbital ship-module 7K-LOK and the LK landing module (using the N-1 launch vehicle), using transport devices, subsequently, after the closure of the Lunar programs, including the L2 program, redesigned into automatic Lunokhod stations. In parallel with the lunar programs based on 7K, they began to make 7K-OK- a multi-purpose three-seat orbital ship (OK), designed to practice maneuvering and docking operations in near-Earth orbit, to conduct various experiments, including the transfer of astronauts from ship to ship through outer space.

  Tests of 7K-OK hastily began in 1966. After abandoning the flight program on the Voskhod spacecraft (with the destruction of the groundwork of three of the four completed Voskhod spacecraft), the designers of the Soyuz spacecraft lost the opportunity to work out technical solutions for their program. There was a two-year break in manned launches in the USSR, during which the United States actively explored outer space.

  The first three unmanned launches of the Soyuz spacecraft (7K-OK No. 2, known as Cosmos-133; 7K-OK No. 1, the launch of which was delayed, but led to the operation of the SAS and the explosion of the rocket in the launch facility; 7K-OK No. 3 "Cosmos-140") turned out to be completely or partially unsuccessful, were discovered serious mistakes in ship design. However, the fourth launch was undertaken by a manned one ("Soyuz-1" with V. Komarov), which turned out to be tragic - the astronaut died during the descent to Earth. His death saved the lives of three other cosmonauts, who were supposed to fly the next day on the same type of spacecraft ("Soyuz-2A") to dock with the Soyuz-1 spacecraft. After the Soyuz-1 accident, the design of the ship was completely redesigned to resume manned flights (6 unmanned launches were performed), and the first, generally successful, automatic docking of two Soyuz took place (Cosmos-186 and Cosmos-188 ”), in 1968 manned flights were resumed, in 1969 the first docking of two manned ships and a group flight of three ships at once took place, and in 1970 an autonomous flight of record duration (17.8 days) took place. The first six ships "Soyuz" and ("Soyuz-9") were ships of the 7K-OK series. A variant of the ship was also preparing for flight "Soyuz-Contact" for testing the docking systems of the 7K-LOK and LK module ships of the L3 lunar expeditionary complex. Due to the failure of the L3 lunar landing program to reach the stage of manned flights, the need for Soyuz-Kontakt flights has disappeared.

  The modification of the ship is currently in operation 7K-STMA Soyuz TMA(A - anthropometric). The ship, according to the requirements of NASA, was finalized in relation to flights to the ISS. Astronauts who could not fit into the Soyuz TM in terms of height can work on it. The cosmonauts' console was replaced with a new one, with a modern element base, the parachute system was improved, and thermal protection was reduced. The last launch of the Soyuz-TMA-22 spacecraft of this modification took place on November 14, 2011.

  In addition to Soyuz TMA, today ships of a new series are used for space flights 7K-STMA-M "Soyuz TMA-M"  ("Soyuz TMAC")(C - digital). It replaced the on-board computer Argon-16 with the TsVM-101 (it is 68 kg lighter and much smaller) and the onboard analog telemetry system with a more compact MBITS digital system in order to improve interfacing with the ISS onboard control system. The modernization of the ship provides for expanding the capabilities of the ship in autonomous flight and during an emergency descent. The first launch of a ship of this type with a crew on board took place on October 7, 2010 - Soyuz TMA-M, and docking with the ISS - on October 10, 2010. Apart from "digitalization", this modification of the ship is very insignificant in scale (fulfillment of NASA requirements in terms of compatibility with the ISS) and is inferior not only to the version of the ship modernization project of the 1990s - Soyuz TMM, but also a light version of this project Soyuz TMS.

  From the 1960s to the present, the Soyuz family of spacecraft has been developed and manufactured by the Energia Rocket and Space Corporation. The production of ships is carried out at the head enterprise of the corporation in Korolev, and the testing and preparation of ships for launch is carried out in the assembly and test building (MIK) of the enterprise at the 254th site of the Baikonur Cosmodrome.

  Device

  The ships of this family consist of three compartments: an instrument-aggregate compartment (PAO), a descent vehicle (SA), and a utility compartment (BO).

  Major improvements(in terms of the layout, design and onboard systems of the descent vehicle (DS) without increasing its dimensions):

  • Three newly developed elongated chairs "Kazbek-UM" with new four-mode shock absorbers were installed, which provide shock absorber adjustment depending on the mass of the astronaut.
  • The reconfiguration of equipment in the over-seat and under-seat areas of the SA was carried out, allowing to accommodate elongated chairs and astronauts with increased anthropometry, and to expand the passage area through the entrance manhole. In particular, a new control panel reduced in height, a new refrigeration and drying unit, an information storage system and other new or improved systems were installed.
  • On the body of the SA in the area of ​​the footrests of the right and left seats, there are stampings about 30 mm deep, which made it possible to accommodate tall cosmonauts and their elongated seats. Accordingly, the power set of the hull and the laying of pipelines and cables have changed.
  • The elements of the SA body, instrument frame and brackets have been modified to a minimum extent. The cockpit, if possible, was "cleared" from protruding elements - they were moved to more convenient places, the valve block of the oxygen supply system was converted into spacesuits.
  • Improvements were made to the complex of landing aids:
    • two (out of 6 single-mode) soft landing engines (DMP) were replaced by two new three-mode ones (DMP-M);
    • to reduce measurement errors, the gamma altimeter "Cactus-1V" was replaced by new device"Cactus-2B".
  • separate systems and units.

  Soyuz TMA-M

  Major improvements:

  • In the motion control and navigation system (VMS) of the ship of the new series, 5 new devices with a total weight of ~ 42 kg were installed (instead of 6 devices with a total weight of ~ 101 kg). At the same time, the power consumption of the SUDN was reduced to 105 W (instead of 402 W);
  • As part of the modified SUDN, a central computer (CVM) with an interface device with a total weight of ~26 kg and power consumption of 80 W is used. The performance of the digital computer is 8 million operations per second, the capacity of the RAM is 2048 KB. The resource has been significantly increased, which is 35 thousand hours. A 50% supply of computing facilities has been laid down;
  • In the onboard measurement system (SBI) of the ship, 14 new instruments with a total mass of ~28 kg (instead of 30 instruments with a total mass of ~70 kg) were installed with the same information content. A mode of information exchange with on-board computing facilities (BCS) has been introduced;
  • The power consumption of the SBI has been reduced: in the mode of direct transmission of telemetric information - up to 85 W (instead of 115 W), in the recording mode - up to 29 W (instead of 84 W) and in the playback mode - up to 85 W (instead of 140 W);

  Related improvements:

  Thermal management system (SOTR):

  • liquid temperature control of SUDN UAV instruments was provided by installing three thermal boards in the instrument compartment (IS) of the ship;
  • the contour of the hinged radiator SOTR was improved for the connection of thermoplates for thermostating new SUDN devices located in the software;
  • installed in the contour of the hinged radiator SOTR electric pump unit of increased productivity;
  • the liquid-liquid heat exchanger was replaced in order to improve the liquid temperature control of the ship at the launch complex in connection with the introduction of new devices into the ship that require temperature control.

  Traffic control and navigation system (SUDN):

  • the block of automation of mooring and orientation engines (BA DPO) has been improved in order to ensure compatibility with new on-board computing facilities;
  • the software for the spacecraft's descent module computing facilities has been improved.

  Onboard complex control system (SUBC):

  • the command processing unit and the command matrix have been improved in order to provide the specified control logic for the input SUDN and SBI devices;
  • the circuit breakers in the power switching units were replaced to provide power supply to the input devices SUDN and SBI.

  Remote astronauts:

  • new software was introduced that takes into account changes in command and signal information during the modernization of on-board systems.

  Improvements in ship design and interfaces with the ISS:

  • the magnesium alloy of the software instrument frame was replaced with an aluminum alloy to improve manufacturability;
  • dubbed multiplex channels were introduced for information exchange between the UAV of the spacecraft and the UAV of the Russian Segment of the ISS.

  Improvement results:

  • 36 obsolete devices were replaced by 19 new devices;
  • the SUBC and SOTR were finalized in terms of providing control, power supply and temperature control of new devices being introduced;
  • the design of the ship was additionally improved to improve the manufacturability of its manufacture;
  • the mass of the ship structure has been reduced by 70 kg, which will allow further improvement of its characteristics.

  Soyuz MS

  A new upgraded version of the Soyuz TMA-M spacecraft. The update affected almost every system of the manned spacecraft. The test phase of the modified spacecraft took place in 2015.

  The main points of the spacecraft modernization program:

  The upgraded Soyuz MS is equipped with GLONASS system sensors. At the stage of parachuting and after landing the descent vehicle, its coordinates obtained from GLONASS / GPS data are transmitted via the Cospas-Sarsat satellite system to the MCC.

  Presumably, Soyuz MS - last modification"Union". The ship will be used for manned flights until it is replaced by a new generation ship "Federation".

  Military projects

  In the early to mid-1960s, the creation of spacecraft of the USSR within the framework of the programs: "A" / "NORTH", was subject to two tasks: the flight of a man to the moon (both with landing on the lunar surface and without it) and the implementation of the programs of the Ministry defense of the USSR. In particular, within the framework of the "NORTH" program, inspectors of space objects were designed - " 7K-P"(Soyuz-P") "Interceptor" and its modification - a combat attack ship with missile weapons 7K-PPK("Soyuz-PPK") "Manned interceptor".

  In 1962, an inspector of space objects was designed - “ 7K-P”, which was supposed to solve the problems of inspecting and disabling enemy spacecraft. This project received the support of the military leadership, since the US plans to create a military orbital station Manned Orbiting Laboratory were known and the Soyuz-P maneuvering space interceptor would ideal remedy to deal with such stations.

  Initially, it was assumed that the Soyuz-P would ensure the approach of the ship to an enemy space object and the exit of cosmonauts into outer space in order to examine the object, after which, depending on the results of the inspection, the cosmonauts would either disable the object by mechanical action, or "remove » it from orbit by placing it in the ship's container. Then, such a technically complex project was abandoned, since there was a fear that with this option, astronauts could become victims of booby traps.

  In the future, the designers changed the concept of using the spacecraft. It was supposed to create a modification of the ship - 7K-PPK("Manned interceptor") for two astronauts, equipped with eight small rockets. It was supposed to approach the enemy spacecraft, after which the astronauts, without leaving their ship, had to visually and with the help of onboard equipment examine the object and decide on its destruction. If such a decision was made, then the ship had to move a kilometer away from the target and shoot it with the help of airborne mini-missiles.

  However, plans to create Soyuz-P / PPK interceptor ships were subsequently abandoned, due to the refusal of the Americans to work on their own project. MOL Manned Orbiting Laboratory . On the basis of the 7K-OK project, the Soyuz-R (Scout) warship was developed, and then the Soyuz-VI (Military Researcher) was developed on its basis. ship project 7K-VI”(Soyuz-VI) appeared in pursuance of the Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of August 24, 1965, ordering to speed up work on the creation of military orbital systems. The designers of the 7K-VI ship promised the military to create a universal warship that could carry out visual reconnaissance, photo reconnaissance, and perform maneuvers to approach and destroy enemy spacecraft.

  In 1967, D. I. Kozlov, at that time the head of the Kuibyshev branch of OKB-1, after unsuccessful launches of 7K-OK (the death of cosmonaut V. M. Komarov, as well as accidents and failures in the flight program of unmanned spacecraft of the Soyuz type and, accordingly, the impossibility of TsKBEM to engage in lunar and military programs at the same time) - completely reconfigured and modified the initial project transferred to his design bureau " 7K-VI". New spaceship model Star"Favorably differed from the basic 7K-OK, was embodied in metal and prepared for test flights. The project of the next version of the Soyuz-VI complex was approved, the government approved the test flight period - the end of 1968. On the descent vehicle was the Nudelman-Richter NR-23 aircraft gun, a modification of the tail gun of the Tu-22 jet bomber, modified specifically for firing in a vacuum. Another innovation applied on the Zvezda was a power plant based on.

  This modification could become the basis for further development Soyuz ships, but the head of OKB-1 (TsKBEM) V.P. Mishin, who took this post after the death of S.P. Korolev, using all his authority and state connections, achieved the cancellation of all flights " 7K-VI"and closed this project, promising to create" 7K-VI/OIS"By minor modifications to the obsolete 7K-OK. Later, the final decision was made that it makes no sense to create a complex and expensive modification of the already existing 7K-OK ship if the latter is quite capable of coping with all the tasks that the military can put before it. Another argument was that one should not dissipate forces and means in a situation where the Soviet Union could lose leadership in the “moon race”. In addition, the leaders of TsKBEM did not want to lose their monopoly on manned space flights. Ultimately, all projects for the military use of a manned spacecraft in the Kuibyshev branch of OKB-1 were closed in favor of unmanned systems.

  The 7K-R project also became the basis for the development of a space transport system - 7K-TK, rejected by Chelomey because of his low transport capabilities for his Almaz station and prompting him to develop his own transport ship - TKS. [ ]

  However, there is another opinion that Chelomei originally designed the Almaz closed system launched on the UR-500 (Proton) with a manned heavy 20-ton TKS (Transport Supply Ship) launched from the 92nd site of Baikonur.

  Spaceship "Vostok"- the world's first manned orbital spacecraft, on which a manned flight into outer space was carried out. Created on the basis of the two-stage Sputnik launch vehicle, its three-stage modification, later called the Vostok launch vehicle, made it possible to launch a satellite ship weighing more than 4.7 tons into a geocentric orbit.

  The Vostok spacecraft (Fig. 3.17) consisted of a descent vehicle and an instrument compartment with a braking propulsion system. Its main specifications are given in table. 3.2.

  
  Table 3.2. Specifications of the Vostok spacecraft

  Work on the spacecraft (SC) project began in 1958.

  On May 15, 1960, the first spacecraft satellite was launched in an unmanned version without thermal protection, on August 19, 1960 - the second with two dogs on board, which returned safely to Earth, and then three more spacecraft, and in the last two (March .) the program of the future manned flight was fully tested.

  On April 12, 1961, at 9:07 Moscow time, the Vostok launch vehicle launched into orbit with a perigee of 181 km, an apogee of 327 km and an inclination of 65 ° the spacecraft Vostok with a mass of 4725 kg with the USSR pilot-cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin. After 108 minutes, having made one revolution around the Earth, the Vostok spacecraft and pilot-cosmonaut Yu. A. Gagarin landed safely on the territory Soviet Union.

  On August 6, 1961, the spacecraft Vostok-2 was launched into orbit, on which the USSR pilot-cosmonaut G.S. Titov for the first time performed a daily orbital flight.

  In August 1962, the first group flight of two spacecraft "Vostok-3" (pilot-cosmonaut A. G. Nikolaev) and "Vostok-4" (pilot-cosmonaut P. R. Popovich) took place.

  In June 1963, a new group flight of two spacecraft "Vostok-5" (pilot-cosmonaut V.F. Bykovsky) and "Vostok-6" (pilot-cosmonaut. V.V. Tereshkova) was performed. The maximum flight duration of the Vostok-5 spacecraft was 5 days. The successful completion of flights under the Vostok program served as the basis for the further development of Soviet space technology.

  The Vostok spacecraft had the following onboard systems:

  motion control and stabilization, providing autonomous and manual orientation and stabilization of the spacecraft during the flight program; in this case, for manual orientation, the Vzor optical device was used, and for automatic orientation, an autonomous solar orientation sensor was used; to control the operation of the systems and to manually issue commands, there was an astronaut's console;

  orientation gas nozzles, consisting of two independent systems of jet nozzles (8 pcs. each) operating on compressed nitrogen coming from balloons placed on the instrument compartment;

  on-board equipment control and power supply, which included command-logical and electrical switching devices and battery packs (in the instrument compartment), an autonomous battery (in the SA), as well as current converters;

  life support and thermal control, maintaining a normal atmosphere in the SC cabin with a pressure of 755 - 775 mm Hg. Art. with an oxygen content of 21 - 25% by volume and a temperature of 17 - 26 ° C and consisting of a regeneration unit, a refrigeration and drying unit, moisture absorbers, a filter to absorb harmful impurities, monitoring and control equipment, as well as a backup evaporative cooling system in the SA ; heat from the refrigeration and drying unit was removed by a refrigerant supplied from the instrument compartment, on which a radiator-radiator and blinds were installed; the thermal control system provided the specified temperature conditions for the equipment in the instrument compartment of the spacecraft;

  radio communications as part of a VHF radio link, two HF radio links for providing two-way telephone communication, a HF transmitter of the "Signal" system for transmitting data on the astronaut's well-being, a duplicated set of radio equipment that provides trajectory measurements, a TV transmitter and a broadcast receiver, two sets of receiving and decoding devices of the command radio line equipment, two sets of radio telemetry equipment with the corresponding switching equipment; at the time of the introduction of the main parachutes of the cosmonaut and the SA, the operation of direction-finding HF transmitters was provided, and after landing - VHF transmitters;

  a program-time device that provides a given cyclogram of on-board equipment operation;

  a propulsion system for deceleration during deorbiting (dry weight 396 kg), which included a liquid-propellant jet engine with a thrust of 1.6 tf, fuel tanks, a fuel supply system and a reserve (280 kg) of two-component fuel; stabilization of the spacecraft during engine operation was carried out automatically according to signals from gyroscopes using steering nozzles of the propulsion system;

  landings as part of the parachute landing system of the descent vehicle, the cosmonaut's ejection seat with parachute systems and the NAZ unit and automatic control of the system operation;

  emergency rescue of a cosmonaut, built taking into account the fact that in the event of a launch vehicle accident at the launch or at the beginning of the flight, the cosmonaut ejects from the descent vehicle, and in the event of an accident in the rest of the flight segments, the SA is separated from the instrument compartment of the spacecraft and launch vehicle for subsequent descent to Earth.

  The entire outer surface of the SA was covered with thermal protection (weighing up to 800 kg), which protected the aluminum alloy structure from heating during flight in the atmosphere in the descent section. Outside the thermal protection, mats of screen-vacuum thermal insulation were applied.

  The launch weight of the entire Vostok launch vehicle was 287 tons with the thrust of the I and II stage engines of 408 tons on Earth, launched simultaneously, and the total length of the launch vehicle with the Vostok spacecraft (from the top of the head fairing to the cut of the nozzles of the steering chambers) was 38.4 m More detailed information about the Vostok launch vehicle is given in the book "Launch Vehicles" (M., Voenizdat, 1981).

  Spaceship Voskhod- the first multi-seat orbital spacecraft - had two modifications and consisted of two compartments - a descent vehicle and an instrument compartment with a braking propulsion system (Voskhod spacecraft), and two of these compartments and an airlock (Voskhod-2 spacecraft). The main technical characteristics of the spacecraft "Voskhod" are given in Table. 3.3.

  

  The first multi-seat spacecraft Voskhod (pilot-cosmonauts V. M. Komarov, K. P. Feoktistov, B. B. Egorov) was launched on October 12, 1964 into orbit with a perigee of 177.5 km, an apogee of 408 km and an inclination of 65 °; October 13, 1964 he made a soft landing on the territory of the USSR.

  On March 18, 1965, the Voskhod-2 spacecraft (pilot-cosmonauts P. I. Belyaev and A. A. Leonov) was launched into an orbit with a perigee of 173 km, an apogee of 498 km and an inclination of 65 °. Using an inflatable airlock and special equipment, pilot-cosmonaut A. A. Leonov for the first time in the world went into open space, having spent 12 minutes outside the spacecraft.

  The onboard systems of the Voskhod spacecraft compared to the onboard systems of the Vostok spacecraft had the following differences:

  the propulsion system for deceleration during deorbiting had a backup backup braking powder jet engine weighing 145 kg, installed in the upper part of the spacecraft;

  the orientation system was supplemented with orientation equipment using ion sensors;

  the landing system had two main parachutes and a soft landing engine in the strands of their suspension, and instead of an ejection seat, two (or three) shock-absorbing seats with individual lodgements for crew members were installed in the SA;

  a special suit with an autonomous satchel was introduced into the life support system, as well as an inflatable lock chamber weighing 250 kg, providing a person with access to open space(KK "Voskhod-2").

  The carrier rocket of the Voskhod spacecraft was a launch vehicle developed on the basis of the Vostok launch vehicle, but with a more powerful III stage, which made it possible to increase the launch mass of the spacecraft.

  Soyuz spacecraft- multi-purpose orbital spacecraft of the second generation. The Soyuz spacecraft (Fig. 3.18) consists of three compartments: an orbital (household) compartment with a docking assembly (or a special compartment), a descent vehicle, and an instrument-aggregate compartment. Its main technical characteristics are given in table. 3.4. In 1962, the development of the Soyuz spacecraft was started, and already in 1964, experimental testing of its on-board systems and design.

  Flight testing of on-board systems and structures was started on the Kosmos-133 satellite on November 28, 1966.

  

  The first test manned flight of the Soyuz-1 spacecraft took place on April 23, 1967 (pilot-cosmonaut V. M. Komarov). The ship was put into orbit with a perigee of 180 km, an apogee of 228 km and an inclination of 51.6°. After additional experimental testing, the long-term operation of the Soyuz spacecraft in a manned version began, starting with the Soyuz-3 spacecraft during assembly (pilot-cosmonaut G.T. Beregovoy), launched on October 28, 1968 to the unmanned spacecraft Soyuz- 2". During docking in orbit on January 16, 1969, two manned spacecraft Soyuz-4 (pilot-cosmonaut V.A. Shatalov) and spacecraft Soyuz-5 (pilot-cosmonauts B.V. Volynov, A.S. Eliseev, E. N. Khrunov) the first experimental station with a mass of 12924 kg was formed and the transition through open space of two crew members from one spacecraft to another was carried out. Subsequently, the Soyuz-6, Soyuz-7 and Soyuz-8 spacecraft carried out a group flight with maneuvering and rendezvous in orbit. In June 1970, the Soyuz-9 spacecraft (pilot-cosmonauts A. G. Nikolaev and V. I. Sevastyanov) made a flight with a duration of 17.7 days. In 1971, the Soyuz spacecraft was upgraded into a transport vehicle (TK) to deliver the crew to the Salyut orbital station and was used in this capacity until 1981 inclusive, ensuring the long-term operation of the Salyut stations and the implementation of the Interkosmos program.

  

  In 1974, the Soyuz spacecraft was modified for an experimental flight under the Soyuz-Apollo program. During the flight of the Soyuz-16 spacecraft (pilot-cosmonauts A.V. Filipchenko and N.N. Rukavishnikov), a new version of the ship was tested, and the joint flight was carried out on July 15-20, 1975 with the participation of the Soviet spacecraft Soyuz- 19" (pilot-cosmonauts A. A. Leonov and V. N. Kubasov) and the American spacecraft "Apollo" (astronauts T. Stafford, D. Slayton, V. Brand). The Soyuz-19 spacecraft in flight (the picture was taken from the Apollo spacecraft) is shown in Fig. 3.19.

  On the Soyuz-22 spacecraft, launched on September 15, 1976 (cosmonauts V.F. Bykovsky and V.V. Aksenov), a program was carried out to photograph the earth's surface using the MKF-6 multi-zone space camera, developed jointly by specialists from the USSR and the GDR and manufactured in the GDR at the people's enterprise "Karl Zeiss Jena".

  The onboard systems of the spacecraft Soyuz include:

  orientation and motion control system;

  berthing and orientation jet engine system;

  rendezvous and corrective propulsion system;

  power supply system;

  a complex of crew life support systems;

  radio communication systems;

  docking system;

  descent vehicle landing system;

  control system of the onboard complex of apparatus and equipment;

  emergency rescue system.

  The orientation and motion control system works both in automatic and in manual mode and is equipped with command devices: a gyrocomplex, attitude sensors, an acceleration integrator, angular velocity sensors, as well as transducer devices, switching logic devices and devices for visual control of the ship's orientation.

  Part of this system, located in the SA, provides control of its movement on the descent section; her executive bodies are six orientation jet engines, including four engines in pitch and yaw with a nominal thrust of 7.5 kgf each and two engines in roll with a nominal thrust of 15 kgf, which operate on single-component fuel (hydrogen peroxide reserve - 30 kg), located in two tanks and supplied by a displacement feed system.

  For manual control of the spacecraft, the cosmonauts' console with information and signal devices, two command and signal devices, and two control knobs are used.

  The system of jet engines for berthing and orientation is designed to perform spacecraft turns relative to its center of mass around three axes and to provide coordinate small displacements of the center of mass along each of these axes. The system includes fourteen berthing and orientation jet engines with a nominal thrust of 10 kgf and eight attitude control engines with a nominal thrust of 1-1.5 kgf, as well as fuel tanks with single-component fuel (hydrogen peroxide reserve - 140 kg), pipelines, a displacement system and fuel supply and automatic system. Of the fourteen motors for approaching and orientation, ten are located on the frame of the transitional section of the instrument-aggregate compartment next to fuel tanks(near the center of mass), and the remaining four berthing and orientation engines, as well as eight orientation engines - at the lower frame of the aggregate section of the instrument-aggregate compartment.

  

  The rendezvous and corrective propulsion system is designed to change the speed of the spacecraft in the direction of its longitudinal axis (during orbit corrections and during deceleration to deorbit) and consists of the main rendezvous and corrective single-chamber engine of multiple launch with a nominal thrust of 417 kgf, a backup two-chamber engine with a nominal thrust 411 kgf, four fuel tanks, fuel supply systems for engines and automation of the propulsion system. During the operation of the main engine, the spacecraft is stabilized by means of the mooring and orientation engines, and during the operation of the backup engine, by means of steering nozzles operating on the gas of one of the turbopump units of the propulsion system. The main and backup engines operate on a two-component fuel: an oxidizer - nitric acid and a fuel - such as hydrazine (fuel supply, depending on the flight program of the spacecraft - 0.5 - 0.9 tons).

  Power supply system provides QC instrument direct current with a nominal voltage of 27 V and includes a main chemical battery, a backup battery, as well as static current converters, ampere-hour meters and switchboards. The capacity of the main battery is sufficient to carry out an autonomous flight of the spacecraft BEFORE its docking and subsequent autonomous flight before descending to Earth. To increase the autonomous flight time, solar panels with an area of ​​-11 m2 can be installed on the spacecraft. Autonomous SA battery provides power to its system during the descent and after landing or splashdown.

  The complex of life support systems includes a set of spacesuits, systems for ensuring the gas composition of the atmosphere of the living compartments, thermal control, food and water supply, a sewage and sanitary device, hygiene and medical supplies. In the residential compartments of the Soyuz spacecraft, with the help of regeneration units, a normal oxygen-nitrogen atmosphere with a pressure of about 760 mm Hg is maintained. Art. with a possible increase in the percentage of oxygen by volume up to 40% and a decrease in pressure to 520 mm Hg. Art.

  The spacesuits are used by the crew during depressurization of the spacecraft, in the area of ​​launching the spacecraft into orbit, during docking, as well as in the area of ​​descent and return to Earth. The thermal control system provides for the discharge of excess heat into outer space by pumping the coolant through special radiators-emitters installed outside the main body of the instrument-aggregate compartment. In addition, to exclude the influx of heat from the Sun and the uncontrolled release of heat by the structure, all compartments of the spacecraft are covered with multilayer screen-vacuum thermal insulation. Power and water supply systems include special rations and water supplies in containers with water supply devices; these systems are located both in the orbital compartment and in the descent vehicle, the complete set of sewage and sanitary device is only in the orbital compartment.

  The KK radio communication systems consist of a command radio link, radiotelephone and radiotelegraph communication systems, radio telemetry, television and a radio rendezvous system.

  The command radio link makes it possible to transmit commands to the spacecraft with the issuance of a receipt to the Earth, and also provides trajectory measurements. It operates in the decimeter range of radio waves through a multivibrator antenna with a circular viewing pattern.

  The radiotelephone and radiotelegraph communication system operates in the HF and VHF bands, provides internal crew communications, communication between the crew and the Earth and between spacecraft in orbit, and also transmits operational telemetry signals through antennas installed on the body of the instrument-aggregate compartment (or solar panels) in pins of various lengths. The same system provides communication during descent through the SA slot antenna, communication and bearing in the parachuting area and after landing using the antenna in the parachute lines and antennas that open on the descent vehicle (after landing).

  The radio telemetry system allows the transmission of telemetric information about the state of on-board systems and SC units and data on the well-being of crew members both in direct transmission mode and in playback mode from storage devices using autonomous transmitters and antennas.

  The television system is designed to control the berthing and docking process and to conduct television reports from the living quarters of the spacecraft, and the television image in the first case is fed to the onboard video control device, and in the second case it is transmitted to Earth via an autonomous radio link or through a command radio link. The system has external cameras in the orbital compartment and a TV camera in the SA.

  The radio rendezvous system is designed for automatic rendezvous and docking of the spacecraft and the station with mutual search, detection and subsequent measurements of the angular position and angular velocity of the line of sight relative to the coordinate system associated with the spacecraft body, the distance between the spacecraft or spacecraft and the station, the radial component of the relative velocity of the spacecraft and the angle mutual roll between the docking spacecraft and the station. The system starts to work from a distance of about 20 km between the spacecraft or spacecraft and the station at a relative speed of up to 40 - 60 m/s without prior target designation of their mutual angular position. The "active" and "passive" spacecraft and stations have identical survey and bearing antennas. In addition, the “passive” SC or station has two beacon antennas, a repeater antenna and a roll antenna, and the “active” one has a gyro-stabilized guidance antenna (in gimbals) operating with a repeater antenna, and a request antenna operating in mooring mode to the survey antenna and bearing of the "passive" spacecraft or station. The electronic equipment of the radio guidance system is installed in the orbital compartment of the Soyuz spacecraft and in the working compartment of the Salyut station.

  The Soyuz spacecraft docking system consists of a docking unit and docking automation devices that set the necessary operating modes during docking. The docking unit is installed in the upper part of the spacecraft orbital compartment and has a hatch with a diameter of 800 mm.

  The landing system of the descent vehicle ensures its landing together with the crew and includes the main and reserve parachute systems, four soft-landing solid-propellant engines (on the SA body), triggered by an altimeter command, shock-absorbing seats and system automation.

  The control system of the onboard instrumentation and equipment complex consists of switching and logic devices located in all compartments of the spacecraft.

  The emergency rescue system is designed to ensure the safety of the crew in the event of a launch vehicle accident at the launch site and at the stage of launching the spacecraft into orbit and is built on the principle of use as special means(propulsion system, automation, etc.), and standard QC systems (see Chapter 10).

  The descent vehicle, made mainly of aluminum alloy, has a frontal heat shield that is dropped before landing, as well as side heat protection and internal thermal insulation.

  The instrument-aggregate compartment is made of aluminum, and the orbital compartment is made of magnesium alloys.

  To launch the Soyuz spacecraft into the orbit of a satellite, a three-stage Soyuz launch vehicle is used, which has a launch mass of up to 310 tons, overall length(with spacecraft "Soyuz") up to 49.3 m and maximum size on air rudders on side missile blocks - 10.3 m (Fig. 3.20)

  

  Stage I (like the Vostok launch vehicle) has four lateral missile units 19.8 m long and 2.68 m in diameter each, equipped with four-chamber (with two additional steering chambers) RD-107 engines.

  The second stage includes a central missile block 27.76 m long (for the Vostok launch vehicle - 28.75 m) with a maximum diameter of 2.95 m, equipped with a four-chamber (with four additional steering chambers) RD-108 engine.

  Stage III consists of a rocket unit 8.1 m long and 2.66 m in diameter (for the Vostok launch vehicle - 2.98 m and 2.58 m, respectively), equipped with a four-chamber engine (with steering nozzles) with a thrust in the void of 29.5 tf (at the Vostok launch vehicle - a single-chamber thrust of 5.6 tf).

  The engines of all stages run on kerosene and liquid oxygen. At launch, the engines of stages I and II are started simultaneously, developing a thrust of 418 tf on Earth.

  

  The second stage engine continues to operate after the side rocket pods have been dropped. After a certain time, the KK head fairing is reset. The third stage engine is switched on at the end of the second stage engine operation before its separation, after which the tail section of the third stage is dropped. The duration of the active section of the engines of all stages of the launch vehicle is about 9 minutes.

  Spacecraft or automatic interplanetary station (AMS) "Zond"- KK for working out the technique of flight to the Moon with return to Earth. AMS "Zond" (Fig. 3.21) consisted of a SA and an instrument-aggregate compartment, as well as a support cone weighing 150 kg, which was dropped before launch to the Moon, installed in the bow.

  The main technical characteristics of the AMS "Zond" are given in Table. 3.5.

  The launch to the Moon was carried out from an intermediate orbit with a perigee of 187 km and an apogee of 219 km.

  The first flight of the Zond-5 AMS to the Moon was performed on September 15, 1968. Having circled the Moon, the AMS entered the Earth's atmosphere at a second cosmic velocity and descended along a ballistic trajectory into the Indian Ocean (Fig. 3.22). On the AMS launched on November 10, 1968 (Zond-6) and August 8, 1969 (Zond-7), they worked out a flyby of the Moon and return to Earth with a controlled descent in the atmosphere to a given area of ​​the territory of the USSR. During the flight of the AMS launched on October 20, 1970 (“Zond-8”), a variant of returning to Earth from the side of the northern hemisphere was worked out.

  

  

  During the flights, valuable material was obtained, including photographs of the Earth and the Moon from various distances, and on board the AMS "Zond-5" there were living creatures - turtles.

  The onboard systems of the AMS "Zond" had the following features:

  the newly developed orientation and motion control system had a gyro platform, solar and star orientation sensors and a special calculator;

  the number of jet engines that control the movement of the SA on the descent section was increased in order to duplicate them along the roll channel;

  the system of orientation jet engines with a nominal thrust of 1 - 1.5 kgf had a redundant set of eight engines;

  the corrective propulsion system was equipped with a single-chamber jet engine with a nominal thrust of 410 kgf, equipped with steering nozzles, with a fuel mass of 0.4 tons;

  the power supply system had solar batteries with an area of ​​11 m 2 for recharging the buffer chemical battery;

  the long-range radio communication system was equipped with a highly directional antenna operating in the decimeter wave range to ensure reliable communication over long distances;

  the thermal protection of the DV was modernized taking into account its heating during the entry of the DV into the atmosphere at the second cosmic velocity;

  the landing system had one parachute system with a main parachute with an area of ​​1000 m2, soft landing engines and automatic system control;

  the propulsion system of the emergency rescue system was more powerful, taking into account the characteristics of the launch vehicle.

  

  

  The rocket and space system included a Proton-type launch vehicle with an additional booster stage for launching the AMS to the Moon

  Soyuz T spacecraft(Fig. 3.23) - an improved three-seat orbital spacecraft, created taking into account the experience of the development and operation of the Soyuz spacecraft - consists of an orbital (household) compartment with a docking unit, a descent vehicle and an instrument-aggregate compartment of a new design.

  The main technical characteristics of the spacecraft "Soyuz T" are given in Table. 3.6.

  On December 16, 1979, in order to practice rendezvous and docking operations with the Salyut-6 station and to perform a 100-day flight, the Soyuz T spacecraft was launched as part of the orbital complex in an unmanned version. The first test manned flight of the Soyuz T-2 spacecraft (cosmonauts Yu. V. Malyshev and V. V. Aksenov) with docking to the Salyut-6 station took place on June 5, 1980. On November 27, 1980, the spacecraft " Soyuz T-3” (cosmonauts L. D. Kizim, O. G. Makarov, G. M. Strekalov). The main task of the flight was to test the transport ship with the full crew.

  On March 12, 1981, the Soyuz T-4 spacecraft was launched (cosmonauts V.V. Kovalenok and V.P. Savinykh), the flight of which marked the beginning of the regular operation of the Soyuz T spacecraft.

  Spaceships Soyuz T are launched into the orbit of the Soyuz launch vehicle.

  The on-board systems of the Soyuz T spacecraft have the following features compared to the Soyuz spacecraft:

  the motion control system is built on the principles of a strapdown (no gyroscopes or gyroplatforms) inertial system based on an onboard digital computer system; all orientation modes, including to the Earth and the Sun, are performed both automatically and with participation! crew, and rendezvous modes - on the basis of calculations using the BTsVK trajectories of relative motion and optimal maneuvers using information from the radio rendezvous system; the system automatically controls dynamic operations, fuel consumption, the state of a number of instruments and units, and can make decisions about changing the operating mode or switching to backup sets of equipment; the system is controlled via a command radio link from the ground or by the crew using on-board information input and display devices, including a display, provides the ability to switch to manual control at any stage of flight and descent; rendezvous-correcting propulsion system with a sustainer engine with a thrust of 315 kgf in a gimbal suspension is combined in terms of power with a system of berthing and orientation engines, uses common fuel components in common tanks; the use of such a combined propulsion system (CPU) makes it possible to redistribute fuel between different engines, which ensures its optimal use and flexibility when executing a flight program, especially in emergency situations; the combined propulsion system has fourteen berthing and orientation engines with a nominal thrust of up to 14 kgf each and twelve engines with a nominal thrust of 2.5 kgf each;

  the power supply system is equipped solar panels, excluding the dependence (in terms of power supply) of the autonomous flight time on the capacity of chemical current sources;

  the complex of life support systems is designed for a crew of up to three people using reserves of gaseous oxygen and carbon dioxide absorbers, the spacesuits have an improved design;

  the thermal control system is equipped with new hydraulic units, a radiator-emitter and automation;

  radio communication systems have a television system with the best image transmission quality, an improved command-and-program radio link and a radio telemetry system, while, in addition to the usual ones, antennas of the "antenna array" type are used;

  the control system of the onboard complex of the new development has increased reliability, the cosmonauts' console has been improved;

  the SA landing system is equipped with new parachute systems and automation, soft landing engines with increased energy and an altimeter for their launch;

  the emergency rescue system is equipped with new solid-propellant engines and has improved characteristics, in particular, in removing the SA from the danger zone.

  On April 23, 1968, the 11A511 launch vehicle launched a new 7K-OK spacecraft, called Soyuz, into low Earth orbit. The ship was piloted by the USSR pilot-cosmonaut, Hero of the Soviet Union Vladimir Komarov. During the flight, many failures were revealed due to design imperfections, which caused the reduction of the program. And on April 24, during the descent from orbit, a catastrophe occurred - the rescue system of the descent vehicle failed. He crashed from hitting the ground, and the astronaut, unfortunately, died. It was the first human spaceflight casualty.

  So tragically began the fate of the new spacecraft.

  In the future, through the hard work of developers and testers, the spacecraft and its launch vehicle were repeatedly improved and brought to high degree reliability. New modifications of spaceships have been created - these are Soyuz T and Soyuz TM, as well as launch vehicles for them - Soyuz U and Soyuz U-2. They were intended for manned flights under the programs of the Salyut and Mir long-term orbital stations, as well as the Soviet-American Soyuz-Apollo program, during which the first flight of an international crew took place. Currently, the spacecraft and launch vehicle serve to support the International Space Station.

  We offer drawings of the Soyuz U-2 launch vehicle, which on May 18, 1991 launched the Soyuz TM-12 spacecraft, flying to the Mir space station, into low Earth orbit. The international crew included two USSR cosmonauts Anatoly Artsebarsky, Sergey Krikalev and Englishwoman Helen Sharman. This rocket served as a prototype for Alexander Levykh to create a copy of its model-copy in the laboratory of rocket and space modeling of the Moscow City Palace of Children's (Youth) creativity and helped him become the champion of Russia, Europe and the world.

  The history of the Soyuz launch vehicle (LV) began in 1960, when OKB-1, under the leadership of the chief designer of rocket and space systems, S.P. Korolev, began developing a four-stage launch vehicle, later called Molniya. This launch vehicle was supposed to solve a wide range of tasks: from launching interplanetary stations to launching telecommunication artificial earth satellites into near-Earth orbits. Its three-stage version, which received the index 11A57, was intended to launch heavy reconnaissance satellites Zenit-4 into low-Earth orbits.

  The famous royal "seven" became the base for the PH 11А57. The newly developed powerful 3rd stage - the missile block (RB) I - had a diameter of 2.66 m and a body length of 6.745 m. It was based on the design and engine of the 2nd stage of the R-9 intercontinental ballistic missile. Its four-chamber liquid-propellant rocket engine (LRE) RD-0110 of the "open" scheme with a thrust of 30 tons ran on liquid oxygen and kerosene, like both lower stages, and had a specific impulse of 330 s. The engine was developed by the Voronezh design bureau under the leadership of the chief designer S.A. Kosberg.

  Block I consisted of a spherical fuel tank, an instrument compartment, an oxidizer tank and a tail compartment. Features of its design allowed to significantly reduce the weight. The engine without a traditional power frame was attached to the bottom of the oxidizer tank, and the tail compartment was detachable. Flight control was carried out by four steering nozzles, through which exhaust gas was released from the LRE turbopump unit. The separation of the 2nd and 3rd stages took place according to the “hot scheme” (that is, when the engine of the 2nd stage was running), and after 5-10 seconds, the tail compartment of the block I was also dropped, divided into three sections. The three-stage carrier made it possible to launch a payload weighing up to 5.9 tons into near-Earth orbits. It was used to launch the first multi-seat satellite ships Voskhod and Voskhod-2. During the flight of the latter, in March 1965, cosmonaut Alexei Arkhipovich Leonov went into outer space for the first time in the world.

  In March 1963, OKB-1 completed a draft design of an in-orbit assembly and maneuvering complex, one of the goals of which was a manned flight to the Moon. The complex included: a 7K spacecraft, a 9K space rocket refueled in orbit, and an 11 K tanker. In the future, the scheme of the complex was repeatedly modified and eventually transformed into a modern one, consisting of an orbital station, manned (Soyuz) and transport (Progress) ships.

  The manned spacecraft 7K-OK consisted of three parts. In front was a household compartment (BO) with a docking station and a passage hatch. Behind it is the descent vehicle (SA), which served as the cosmonauts' cabin. Next - the instrument-aggregate compartment, which housed the control instruments, fuel tanks and the ship's corrective propulsion system, designed to change the flight path, mooring and braking when descending to the ground. The launch weight of the ship ranged from 6.46 to 6.56 tons.

  The launch vehicle 11A511 (compared to 11A57) has increased to 6.5 tons the mass of the output payload and the emergency rescue system has changed. To do this, the rocket was launched with an inclination of 51.5 degrees to the equatorial plane, a telemetry system lightened up to 150 kg was used, and an individual selection of engines for the central blocks with a specific impulse of at least 252 s near the ground and 315 s in the void was carried out. The design improvements of the carrier were minimal - the docking unit of the 3rd stage (block I) with the payload and the shape of the head fairing (GO) were changed.

  The 11A511 launch vehicle consisted of a package of rocket blocks of the 1st and 2nd stages, the 3rd stage (block I) and the spacecraft 7K-OK, closed on the active site by a nose fairing, on top of which the propulsion system of the emergency rescue system was located ( DU SAS). The length of the launch vehicle was 49.913 m, the launch weight was 309 tons. The span along the aerodynamic rudders was 10.412 m.

  The SAS was intended to rescue the crew during the launch of the spacecraft into orbit. In the first phase of the flight, from the moment of launch to the reset of the SAS and GO control, a separable head unit (OGB) is provided for withdrawal from the emergency rocket. It consists of the SAS control and the upper part of the head fairing, inside which the withdrawn part of the ship (BO and SA) is located. Four lattice stabilizers are mounted on the fairing, which open when the OGB is separated. The launch of the ACS when the launch vehicle is at the Launch Complex is carried out on command from the launch control point, and during the flight - automatically. In the first section, the ACS operates as follows: when a command is given, the ACS is separated from the instrumentation compartment and the upper part of the dynamic fairing, the locks of the lattice stabilizer consoles are opened, which provides aerodynamic stabilization of the flight, then the main engine of the ACS control is activated, which leads the OGB to a safe distance (about 1 km). There, the SA is separated from the OGB, and its parachute system is put into operation.

  DU SAS is a combination of three rocket engines solid fuel(RDTT): the main engine, the thrust engine, which diverts the ACS remote control from the launch vehicle at the time of regular separation from the head fairing, and the declination engine, designed to divert the ACS remote control away from the launch vehicle flight direction.

  Flight tests of the Soyuz spacecraft began on November 28, 1966. The program was completed by the end of 1971. During this period, there were 19 launches (one of which was unsuccessful). By tradition, the name of the ship also passed to the launch vehicle.

  

  1 - propulsion system of the emergency rescue system; 2-head fairing; 3 - lattice stabilizer; 4 - adapter; 5 - fuel block tank And; 6.24 - antennas; 7 - block oxidizer tank I; 8 - drop tail section of block I; 9 - truss-adapter; 10 - instrument compartment block L; 11 - block oxidizer tank L; 12 - bracket; 13 - power cone; 14 - side block oxidizer tank; 15 - fuel tank unit A; 16 - fuel tank of the side block; 17 - tie rods; 18 - tail section of block L; 19-tail compartment of the side block; 20 - aerodynamic steering wheel; 21 - RD-108 engine; 22 - RD-107 engine; 23 - engine RD-0110; XVI - rivet seam (rivets with countersunk head); XVII - rivet seam (rivets with a hemispherical head); XVIII - spot welding seam; XIX - welded seam

  

  In the second half of 1969, in connection with the development of work on the creation of a long-term orbital station DOS-7K (later called Salyut), the development of the Soyuz transport spacecraft, which received the designation 7K-T, began. Its launch weight was increased to 6.7 tons. Unmanned launches of this version of the ship were not carried out. The stage of flight design tests was combined with the start of operation of the ship as part of the Salyut DOS. The first flight took place on April 23-25, 1971 (Soyuz-10 spacecraft), the second flight took place on July 6-30 of the same year (Soyuz-11 spacecraft, crew: cosmonauts Georgy Dobrovolsky, Vladislav Volkov and Viktor Patsaev ). During the descent, at the moment of separation of the compartments, there was a depressurization of the ship, which led to the death of the crew. The disaster required a number of changes to the design of the ship, primarily in the means of rescuing astronauts (flight suits with a life support system). This reduced the crew to two people and increased the launch weight of the ship to 6.8 tons.

  Since the beginning of the 70s, work began on the next modification of the Soyuz spacecraft, which was supposed to allow returning to a crew of three. For her adopted the designation 7K-ST, and later - the name "Soyuz T". The launch weight of the ship increased to 6.83 tons. This required the continuation of work on the further improvement and unification of launch vehicles in the Samara Design Bureau "Progress" under the leadership of the chief designer D.I. Kozlov, which ended with the creation of a unified carrier "Soyuz U" (index 11A511U ), which is currently in operation. The creation of a new carrier made it possible to significantly reduce the range of rocket blocks.

  In 1972, work began on the implementation of the international space program "Soyuz-Apollo" (the ASTP Program). A modification of the spacecraft "Soyuz" was developed for it, which received the designation 7K-M. For launching into orbit, it was decided to use the Soyuz U launch vehicle with a new SAS control system. Rescue of the crew from the moment of resetting the control system of the SAS to resetting the GO was ensured by the installation of four solid propellant rocket motors under the fairing. Tests of spacecraft 7K-M with a new carrier began with a flight in automagic mode on April 3, 1974 and ended in the same year with a Soyuz-16 flight from December 2 to 8. And on July 15, 1975, Soyue-19 was launched, which on July 17 successfully docked with the American Apollo.

  Flight design tests of the KK 7K-ST, which began on August 6, 1974, were completed by a manned flight of the Soyuz T-3 spacecraft from November 27 to December 10, 1989. The Soyuz T series ships were operated as part of the Salyut- 6, Salyut-7 and Mir from March 1981 to July 1986. During this period, there were 13 manned launches. During the launch of the Soyuz T in September 1983, the launch vehicle 11A511U crashed at the launch complex and the SAS ensured the rescue of the crew.

  Further modernization of the Soyuz T spacecraft led to the creation of another modification of the 7K-STM (Soyuz TM), the launch mass of which reached 7.07 tons. This is due to the improvement of the orbital stations and, in particular, the fact that they increasing the orbital inclination to 65 degrees. It became necessary to compensate for the loss of 330-350 kg of cargo carried by the launch vehicle. The problem could be solved only in a combined way: firstly, by increasing the capabilities of the launch vehicle, and secondly, by reducing the mass of the ship.

  In 1984, work was completed to improve the Soyuz U launch vehicle. The upgraded rocket was named "Soyuz U-2" (index 11A511U-2). Its main difference was the use of synthetic hydrocarbon fuel "cycline" instead of kerosene in the central unit. Its application has made it possible to achieve more complete combustion fuel and increase the specific impulse of the engine of the central unit by 2-3 s. This, along with some other improvements related to the modernization and reduction of the weight of the control equipment, made it possible to increase the mass of the payload to the required value.

  The increased thermal effect on the side blocks made it necessary to increase the size of the thermal protection on them. For Soyuz TM ships, a new SAS control unit was created, which had a reduced diameter, which improved the aerodynamic characteristics of the SAS OGB and reduced the weight of the balancing load. outer surface the upper part of the head fairing was covered with thermal insulation to protect it from the effects of a jet stream flowing from the nozzles of the control system of the SAS. It is important to change the release time of the SAS control from the 160th to the 115th second of the flight, which made it possible to increase the payload and combine the areas of its fall with the side blocks. Flight tests of the Soyuz TM spacecraft in unmanned mode began on May 21, 1986, and manned flights on February 17, 1987.

  The Soyuz U-2 launch vehicle consists of a package of rocket blocks 11S59-2, formed by block A of the 2nd stage and blocks B, C, G and D of the 1st stage; 3rd stage (rocket block I 11S510) and assembly and protective block 11S517AZ, consisting of a remote control SAS, a head fairing and a transition compartment. The Soyuz TM spacecraft is mounted on the transfer compartment. From above it is closed by an assembly-protective block. The length of the carrier with the spacecraft "Soyuz TM" is 51.316 m, the span along the aerodynamic rudders is 10.303 m, the launch weight is 310 tons.

  The launch sequence is as follows: lift contact - 0 s, reset of the remote control SAS -115th s, separation of the 1st stage blocks -118th s, reset of the dynamic fairing - 166th s, separation of the central unit -297- I s, dumping the tail compartment of the RB I -305th s, KK department - 541st s.

  Currently, the Soyuz U-2 launch vehicle is not used, since synthetic fuel is very expensive, and the task of putting the Soyuz TM spacecraft into orbits with an inclination of 51.5 degrees can be solved using the Soyuz U launch vehicle. It includes the 11S59 package and upper blocks similar to the Soyuz U-2. The dimensions of the complex of the Soyuz U launch vehicle - the Soyuz TM spacecraft are the same as those of the Soyuz U-2 launch vehicle, and the launch weight is 309.7 tons.

  Currently, work is underway to further modernize the Soyuz launch vehicle under the Rus program. Its task is to increase the energy capabilities of the launch vehicle for manned flights from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. The program consists of several stages. At the first stage, it is planned to replace the outdated analog control system with a digital one from the on-board computer. This will reduce the weight of the control equipment and increase its reliability.

  At the second stage, it is planned to modernize the RD-107 and RD-108 sustainer rocket engines of the central and side missile units. In particular, in the combustion chamber, replace the head of an outdated design with 650 centrifugal nozzles with a new one, with 1000 jet nozzles. This replacement will improve the processes of mixing and combustion of fuel components in the combustion chambers of engines, which, in turn, will reduce pressure pulsations and increase the specific thrust by several units. The name of the upgraded engines is RD-107A and RD-108A, and the launch vehicle modifications are Soyuz FG.

  The third stage involves the creation of an improved rocket block And while maintaining its geometric dimensions. The basis of the modification will be the new LRE RD-0124 "closed" circuit. Its use and improved combustion process, achieved by changing the ratio of fuel and oxidizer, will increase the specific impulse by 33 s compared to the base version of the RD-0110 engine. Changing the ratio of components will lead to a decrease in the volume of the fuel tank, the bottom of which will become lenticular. The launch vehicle with all the planned modifications was named Soyuz-2. It will allow launching manned spacecraft from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. Its flight tests should begin in the near future.

  The fourth stage of the Rus program involves a deep modification of the Soyuz launch vehicle. This will be the creation of a practically new launch vehicle with even higher energy capabilities, the project of which has already been named Aurora. It is based on the use in the central block of the powerful NK-33 rocket engine with a thrust of 150 tons, created 30 years ago at the Design Bureau under the leadership of chief designer N.D. Kuznetsov for the N-1 lunar launch vehicle. Its use will require the redistribution of fuel in stages. The diameters of the fuel tanks of the central unit are supposed to be increased by 0.61 m while maintaining their length. The side blocks will remain unchanged. This will allow using the design of the existing launch complex based on the "seven" with minimal alterations. To be created new design 3rd stage, the diameter of which will increase to 3.5 m.

  The three-stage version of the new carrier will be able to launch a payload of 10.6 tons into low orbits when launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. And in the four-stage version, with the Corvette upper stage, launch a payload of 1.6 tons into geostationary orbit. Russia and France signed an intergovernmental agreement on the construction of a launch complex for carrier rockets based on the G7 at the Kourou cosmodrome (French Guiana). There is also a project to build a spaceport on Christmas Island, located in the Indian Ocean. If any of the projects is implemented, the new launch vehicle will be able to launch a cargo weighing 12 tons into low orbits, and 2.1 tons into geostationary orbits.

  V. MINAKOV, engineer

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  Spaceships Bobkov Valentin Nikolaevich

  Multi-purpose spacecraft "Soyuz"

  Multi-purpose spacecraft "Soyuz"

  The design of the spacecraft, its dimensions and weight, as well as the composition of the main systems and their main characteristics depend on the tasks solved in flight. However, multi-purpose spacecraft with broad capabilities have also been created. These primarily include spacecraft "Soyuz" and its modifications. The development of this spacecraft began to work in the early 60s, shortly after the flight of the first cosmonauts on the Vostok spacecraft.

  The new spacecraft was significantly different in layout and composition from its predecessors, and its main systems were not only newly developed, but also made more versatile. With subsequent modifications of the Soyuz spacecraft, these systems were further improved. Nevertheless, the basic layout of the Soyuz spacecraft was preserved in its original version, and this spacecraft made it possible to solve a number of new technical problems, both in autonomous flight and as part of orbital complexes.

  The launch mass of the entire Soyuz rocket and space system was 310 tons.

  The first manned space flights showed that in order to increase the duration of man's stay in orbit, it is necessary to improve the conditions inside the spacecraft, first of all, more spacious premises for astronauts were required. This was especially evident during long (up to 2 weeks) flights of American cosmonauts in the cockpit of the Gemini spacecraft. According to these astronauts, the KK cockpit was smaller than the front of a miniature Volkswagen car, but with an additional control panel the size of a large color television set crammed between the seats. On Earth, it was difficult to stay in such a cabin even for several hours (weightlessness helped in a sense to a longer stay in space).

  Rice. 6. The layout of the spacecraft "Soyuz"

  Starting the design of the Soyuz spacecraft (Fig. 6), the specialists decided to introduce an additional living compartment into its structure, which they called the domestic (or orbital) one. The compartment served the astronauts as a working room, a rest room, a dining room, a laboratory, and an airlock. This arrangement is rational for a multi-purpose disposable spacecraft. In particular, this made it possible to reduce the dimensions and weight of the SA, which, as is known, seems rational for a disposable spacecraft. In this case, thermal protection, and parachute systems, and soft landing engines, and a braking propulsion system with a reserve of fuel for deorbiting become minimal.

  The total internal volume of the residential compartments of the spacecraft "Soyuz" was more than 10 m 3 , free volume - 6.5 m 3 , including 4 m 3 for the domestic compartment. In addition to the SA and the household compartment, the spacecraft included an instrument-aggregate compartment, in which, in addition to the propulsion system, the systems used in orbital flight were located.

  The fundamental difference between the new spacecraft and its predecessors was, first of all, the possibility of wide maneuvering in orbit. The rendezvous-correcting propulsion system included the main and spare multiple-start engines, which developed a thrust of about 4.1 and 4 kN, respectively, tanks with two-component fuel up to 900 kg (nitric acid + dimethylhydrazine), a fuel supply system and controls. This propulsion system, in addition to deorbiting, provided a change in the orbital parameters and maneuvering of the spacecraft when approaching another spacecraft.

  Final berthing maneuvers for docking required finer control of the spacecraft speed. For this, as well as for performing other control modes in different flight sections, the Soyuz spacecraft was equipped with a reactive control system consisting of several groups of control engines of different thrust (Fig. 7).

  

  Rice. 7. Soyuz reactive control system: 1 - temperature sensor, 2 - reserve gas cylinder, 3 - main gas cylinder, 4 - pressure sensor, 5 - reserve pressurization valves, 9 - main pressurization valves, 7 - gas filter , 8 - reducer, 9 - tank combining valve, 10 - reserve fuel tank, 11 - main fuel tanks, 12 - reserve tank valves, 13 - main tank valves, 14 - line separation valve, 15. 16 - fuel supply valves , 17 - fuel filter, 18, 19 - manifolds, 20 - starting valve, 21 - starting valve, 22 - thruster, 23 - thruster

  One of these groups, located in the region of the center of mass of the spacecraft in the instrument-aggregate compartment and consisting of 10 engines of approximately 100 N each, was used to change the speed of translational motion. To control orientation with high precision in the economical mode, a group of 8 engines with a thrust of 10–15 N each was used, located in the tail section of the same compartment. There were also 4 more engines with a thrust of 100 N each for a more efficient set of angular velocity when orienting in pitch and heading.

  As well as on the first Soviet spacecraft, a normal air atmosphere with a pressure of 760 ± 200 mm Hg was maintained in the living compartments of the Soyuz spacecraft. Art. The life support system was also built on the principles described earlier with a number of improvements.

  To minimize external heat transfer, all compartments of the spacecraft were insulated with the so-called screen-vacuum thermal insulation. The fact is that of all types of external heat transfer in orbit, practically only radiant heat transfer (heating due to the radiation of the Sun and the Earth and cooling due to the radiation of the surface of the spacecraft itself) is of importance in vacuum conditions, which depends primarily on the so-called optical properties of the surface ( its degree of blackness).

  Each layer of screen-vacuum thermal insulation reflects rays well to some extent, and a multilayer package of such thermal insulation practically excludes both absorption and radiation of heat. Even some necessary "windows" (for example, the nozzle of the main engine) were covered with a vacuum-screened thermal insulation cover, equipped with an automatic drive to open and close the cover.

  However, inside the spacecraft, heat is continuously released: it is emitted by the astronauts themselves, and all the consumed electricity eventually turns into practically heat. Therefore, it is necessary to discharge this heat overboard the spacecraft. For this purpose, an external radiator was fixed above a part of the casing of the instrument-aggregate compartment, the surface of which reflected most of the sun's rays and intensely radiated heat into outer space. As a result, this surface always turned out to be cold, and the coolant circulating through the radiator was intensively cooled.

  The amount of coolant flowing through the radiator changed, and thus the heat release was regulated. With the help of pumps, the coolant was pumped through an extensive system of heat exchangers to all compartments of the CC.

  On the Soyuz spacecraft, flights (including autonomous ones) of various durations up to 18 days were made (the Soyuz-9 spacecraft with cosmonauts A. G. Nikolaev and V. I. Sevastyanov). The long duration, extensive flight program and, as a result, the great complexity of systems that consumed a lot of electricity, led to the creation of a new power supply system with solar panels. Two solar panels, deployed after the spacecraft entered orbit, provided electricity to all spacecraft systems, including charging battery called buffer.

  For more efficient operation of solar batteries, the QC is oriented (if possible) so that the planes of the batteries are perpendicular to the sun's rays. Such an orientation is usually maintained due to the fact that the ship is given a certain, relatively small rotation speed (this flight mode is called spin on the Sun). In this case, the buffer batteries are charged, and again it is possible to change the orientation of the spacecraft to perform other sections of the flight program.

  A few words should be said about some of the advantages and disadvantages of a solar power system. First of all, this relatively simple and reliable system becomes effective only for sufficiently long flights, since its mass does not depend on the time of use. At the same time, such a system requires sufficiently large deployable panels, which limit the spacecraft's maneuverability, especially during solar orientation periods.

  The most complex Soyuz spacecraft systems included a set of maneuvering control tools: correction of orbit parameters, rendezvous and docking. From the very beginning, these tools were built so that there were several control loops and complex maneuvers could be performed in automatic or semi-automatic mode. Commands to turn on these modes could be issued both by cosmonauts and from the Earth via a command radio link.

  This, in particular, applied to the control of other systems of the Soyuz spacecraft (life support, thermal control, power supply, etc.). The presence of automatic circuits complicated the systems themselves, but expanded the possibilities when performing various programs and subsequently made it possible to create fundamentally new space complexes (orbital space stations "Salyut" with a transport supply system based on the unmanned cargo ship "Progress").

  The rendezvous and docking systems turned out to be fundamentally new and complex. During rendezvous and docking operations, many, if not most of the spacecraft and spacecraft systems are involved. ground facilities tracking, command and control. These are, apparently, the most complex complex-type operations performed in orbit. In order to rendezvous, one must first determine the orbits of both spacecraft, continuously recalculate these data in the process of performing spacecraft maneuvers (after all, each engine start changes these parameters).

  To solve this problem, ground and airborne navigation and computing facilities are used. The main consequence of these calculations is the determination of the parameters of the corrective pulse. Moreover, the engine that provides this impulse must be turned on at a strictly defined point in the orbit, in a strictly given direction, at a precisely calculated time, and, finally, the engine must work for a very specific time. Only in this case the space vehicles will gradually approach each other according to the laws of celestial mechanics.

  Usually, several corrective pulses are emitted during the approach. And every time on Earth, complex calculations are made on a mathematical model, taking into account the laws of celestial mechanics, so that each spacecraft “knows” its maneuver, and this requires the coordinated work of all spacecraft systems. The spacecraft must orient itself in the calculated position in the orbital coordinate system, one of the axes of which is directed to the center of the Earth and which continuously “rotates” along with the spacecraft in orbit, and the other axis is directed along the spacecraft velocity vector.

  After turning on the rendezvous-correcting propulsion system, it is necessary to maintain and stabilize the angular position of the spacecraft. The very switching on or off, as well as the operation of the main engine and the operation of the control system, the engines of the reactive control system and other means, require the coordinated operation of other systems (radio control and monitoring equipment, thermal control, etc.). Naturally, all actions must be strictly synchronized.

  As a result of all maneuvers, the spacecraft must enter calculated point meetings, and in order to dock, one must arrive there not only at the same time, as one must come to each space “date” (American experts call it “rendezvous” as such), but also at low relative speeds. In other words, by the time of reaching the calculated point, all parameters of the orbits of both spacecraft should be practically equal. After that, the laws of celestial mechanics, as it were, weaken their effect, practically do not affect the relative movement, and the rest of the way, the last kilometers, can be approached already “like an airplane”, that is, adhering to a coaxial position with a gradual damping of the residual speed, lateral and vertical demolition.

  There are several ways and means to ensure that the last few kilometers of this long way- the most difficult phase of rendezvous in orbit. On the Soyuz spacecraft, special radio guidance equipment was used for this. It made it possible to determine the distance between the spacecraft, the speed of approach and the direction "to each other." If the relative speed was not too high at first, the parameters of corrective pulses were determined with the help of a special computing device, which gradually “driven” the spacecraft into a “narrow tube” leading to docking.

  The process in this part of the flight usually lasts 15–20 minutes, and it is perhaps the most intense on Earth and in space. All operating systems at numerous ground and floating tracking stations are monitored by hundreds of operators and specialists in the mission control center.

  Thus, having started flying in orbit with a relative (i.e., relative to another spacecraft) speed of several hundred meters per second, the spacecraft approaches the target of its flight at a speed of less than 0.5 m/s. Nevertheless, a whole system of shock absorbers is needed to connect without damage two spacecraft, each of which has a mass of several tons or even tens of tons. This and other functions of connecting spacecraft into a single structure are performed by the docking system.

  Several variants of the docking device were created for the Soyuz spacecraft. The first type of docking units, with the help of which the Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5 spacecraft were docked, produced only a rigid connection of the spacecraft. Cosmonauts A. S. Eliseev and E. V. Khrunov made a “transfer” from one spacecraft to another through outer space, using the domestic compartment as an airlock.

  Created later, at the end of the 60s, the design provided an already tight connection of the joint with the formation of a transition tunnel (Fig. 8). This docking device, installed for the first time on the Salyut orbital station and the Soyuz transport spacecraft, has been successfully operated in space for the second decade. The docking system (all control equipment involved in the direct connection of spacecraft) can operate automatically or be controlled remotely. Such a construction was also useful in the creation of Progress cargo ships.

  

  Rice. Fig. 8. Docking scheme of the Soyuz spacecraft with the Salyut station: a - formation of a primary mechanical connection, b - formation of a secondary mechanical connection, c - violation of the primary mechanical connection, d - opening of transfer hatches (1 - receiving cone, 2 - rod, 3 - socket, 4 - rod head, 5 - docking frame lock, 6 - hatch cover drive, 7 - hatch cover, 8 - alignment lever)

  The Soyuz spacecraft radio complex ensures the performance of all the five main functions listed above (two-way communication, television, trajectory measurements, remote control, telemetry control) in orbital flight, during descent from orbit and after landing. Some of these means, located in the SA, make it possible to maintain almost continuous two-way communication with the astronauts (except for the most intense deceleration in the atmosphere, when the SA is surrounded by a layer of electrically conductive plasma that is opaque in the radio range). When descending by parachute and after landing, a radio bearing is carried out.

  As mentioned earlier, the Soyuz was the first domestic spacecraft to perform a controlled descent in the atmosphere. Due to this, the landing accuracy has significantly increased, the search has been simplified, and the astronauts have become more promptly assisted, which is especially important after long flights, after the impact of large physical and emotional overloads on the human body during descent, which had previously adapted to total absence overloads in zero gravity.

  The last point in flight is made by SA when it touches the Earth. Due to improvements in the landing system, the latter became soft, which is ensured by the operation of 4 powder engines, produced by a signal from a special altimeter at a height of about 1 m. the chair is made according to the contours of the astronaut's body. In addition, the seats themselves have special shock absorbers. All this helps the astronauts to endure large overloads.

  The Soyuz rocket and space system is equipped with a carefully thought-out SAS system. The latter ensures the separation and withdrawal from the launch vehicle of a part of the spacecraft as part of the so-called head block in the event of a threatening situation. Rescue of the crew in the SA is actually provided from the period of the rocket-space system being on the launch pad to entering the orbit. At the initial stages, withdrawal is carried out by a special solid-propellant propulsion system, which is located on the head fairing of the launch vehicle, which protects the spacecraft from aerodynamic loads.

  The thrust of the main SAS engine is about 800 kN. The propulsion system also includes a side slip engine and a regular SAS reset engine with a thrust of about 200 kN. After that, the head fairing of the launch vehicle is reset (opening the doors with the help of solid propellant engines). The QC can then simply be separated from the PH. Moreover, in all cases, the available standard means of the landing system are used for landing.

  The Soyuz manned flight program, launched on April 23, 1967 by V. M. Komarov on the Soyuz-1 spacecraft, included 39 spacecraft flights with cosmonauts on board (including one suborbital) and 2 spacecraft flights without cosmonauts . In total, 40 different Soviet cosmonauts and 9 foreign ones (under the Interkosmos program) participated in the program.

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  The ships of the Soyuz series, which were promised a lunar future almost half a century ago, never left the near-Earth orbit, but gained a reputation for themselves as the most reliable passenger space transport. Let's look at them with the eyes of the ship's commander.

  1. Docking unit.
  2. Landing vehicle.
  3. Transition compartment.
  4. Instrument compartment.
  5. Aggregate compartment.
  6. Household compartment.
  7. Landing hatch.
  8. Pilot's optical sight.

  The Soyuz-TMA spacecraft consists of an instrument-assembly compartment (PAO), a descent vehicle (SA), and an amenity compartment (BO), with the CA occupying the central part of the spacecraft. Just as in an airliner, during takeoff and climb, we are instructed to fasten our seat belts and not leave our seats, astronauts are also required to be in their seats, to be fastened and not to take off their spacesuits during the stage of launching the ship into orbit and maneuver. After the end of the maneuver, the crew, consisting of the ship's commander, flight engineer-RA-1 and flight engineer-2, are allowed to remove their spacesuits and move to the service compartment, where they can eat and go to the toilet. The flight to the ISS takes about two days, the return to Earth takes 3-5 hours.

  Management "Soyuz-TMA"

  1. Integrated control panel (InPU). In total, there are two IPUs on board the descent vehicle - one for the commander of the ship, the second for the flight engineer-1 sitting on the left.
  2. Numeric keypad for entering codes (for navigation on the InPU display).
  3. Marker control unit (used for navigation on the InPU display).
  4. Block of electroluminescent indication of the current state of systems (TS).
  5. RPV-1 and RPV-2 are manual rotary valves. They are responsible for filling the lines with oxygen from spherical balloons, one of which is located in the instrument-aggregate compartment.
  6. Electropneumatic valve for oxygen supply during landing.
  7. Special cosmonaut's sight (VSK). During docking, the ship's commander looks at the docking port and observes the ship docking. To transmit the image, a system of mirrors is used, approximately the same as in the periscope on a submarine.
  8. Movement control knob (RUD). With its help, the spacecraft commander controls the engines to give the Soyuz-TMA a linear (positive or negative) acceleration.
  9. Using the attitude control stick (OCC), the spacecraft commander sets the rotation of the Soyuz-TMA around the center of mass.
  10. The refrigeration and drying unit (XSA) removes heat and moisture from the ship, which inevitably accumulate in the air due to the presence of people on board.
  11. Toggle switches to turn on the ventilation of spacesuits during landing.
  12. Voltmeter.
  13. Fuse block.
  14. Button to start conservation of the ship after docking. The Soyuz-TMA resource is only four days, so it must be protected. After docking, power and ventilation are supplied by the orbital station itself.

  The information display system (IDS) in the Soyuz-TMA spacecraft is called Neptune-ME. There are currently more a new version SDI for the so-called digital "Soyuz" - ships of the "Soyuz-TMA-M" type. However, the changes affected mainly the electronic filling of the system - in particular, the analog telemetry system was replaced with a digital one. Basically, the continuity of the "interface" is preserved. The information display system (IDS) Nep-tun-ME used in the Soyuz-TMA belongs to the fifth generation of the IDS for the Soyuz series spacecraft.

  As you know, the Soyuz-TMA modification was created specifically for flights to the International Space Station, which involved the participation of NASA astronauts with their larger spacesuits. In order for the astronauts to be able to make their way through the hatch connecting the household unit with the descent vehicle, it was necessary to reduce the depth and height of the console, of course, while maintaining its full functionality. The problem was also that a number of instrument assemblies used in previous versions of SDI could no longer be produced due to the disintegration of the former Soviet economy and the cessation of some production. Therefore, the entire SDI had to be fundamentally reworked. The central element of the ship's SDI was an integrated control panel, hardware-compatible with an IBM PC type computer.

  During the flight, the ship performs the following tasks:

  1. Delivery to the station of the visiting crew of up to three people and small related cargo (scientific research equipment, personal belongings of astronauts, repair equipment for the station, etc.);
  2. Constant duty of the spacecraft at the station during its manned flight in readiness for an urgent descent of the crew of the main expedition to Earth in case of dangerous situation at the station, diseases or injuries of the astronaut, etc. (function of the rescue ship);
  3. Scheduled descent of the crew of the visiting expedition to Earth; the composition of the ship's crew during delivery and return may change at the station;
  4. Return to Earth, simultaneously with the crew, payloads of relatively small mass and volume (results of the work of the expedition at the station, personal belongings, etc.);
  5. Removal of waste from the station in the household compartment, burning in the atmosphere during descent.