Colonial contradictions before the First World War. Russia before World War I

Germany, united in 1871 into an empire under the rule of Wilhelm I, embarked on the path of creating a colonial power. Leading German industrialists and financiers put forward a program of wide expansion: in 1884-1885. Germany established a protectorate over Cameroon, Togo, Southwest Africa, territories in East Africa and part of the island of New Guinea.

Wilhelm I

Germany's entry into the path of colonial conquest led to an aggravation of Anglo-German contradictions. For the further implementation of their plans, the German government decided to create a powerful navy that could put an end to the maritime dominance of Great Britain. As a result, in 1898 the Reichstag approved the first bill on the construction of the navy, and in 1900 a new bill was passed, providing for a significant strengthening of the German fleet.

The German government continued to carry out its expansionist plans: in 1898 it seized Qingdao from China, turning a small settlement into a fortress, in 1899 it acquired a number of islands in Spain from Spain. pacific ocean. British attempts to reach an agreement with Germany were unsuccessful due to growing contradictions between them. These contradictions were even more intensified in connection with the provision by the Turkish government in 1899, after the visit of Emperor Wilhelm II to the Ottoman Empire and his meeting with Sultan Abdulhamid II, to the German Bank of a concession for the construction of the main highway of the Baghdad railway, which opened Germany a direct route through the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor to the Persian Gulf and provided it with important positions in the Middle East, which threatened the sea and land communications of Great Britain with India.

Wilhelm II

Abdulhamid II

O. von Bismarck

Germany tried to use the clash of interests of Great Britain and Russia in Persia, as well as the general disagreements of the Entente participants in the Balkans. In November 1910, in Potsdam, Nicholas II and Wilhelm II personally negotiated issues related to the Baghdad railway and Persia. The result of these negotiations was the Potsdam Agreement, signed in St. Petersburg in August 1911, according to which Russia took upon itself the obligation not to interfere with the construction of the Baghdad railway. Germany recognized Northern Persia as a sphere of Russian influence and committed itself not to seek concessions in this territory. However, in general, Germany did not succeed in tearing Russia away from the Entente.

As in other imperialist countries, there was an upsurge in nationalist sentiment in Germany. The public opinion of the country was preparing for waging a war for the redivision of the world.

Italy, fully united in 1870, did not stand aside from the struggle for colonies. Initially, Italian expansion was directed to Northeast Africa: in 1889, part of Somalia was captured, in 1890 - Eritrea. In 1895, Italian troops invaded Ethiopia, but in 1896 they were defeated near Adua. In 1912, during the war with the Ottoman Empire, Italy captured Libya, later turning it into its colony.

As early as 1900, there was an exchange of notes between Italy and France on the mutual recognition of the latter Italian claims to Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, against which Austria-Hungary opposed, and Italy - French claims to Morocco. In 1902, by an exchange of letters between the French Ambassador in Rome, Barrer, and the Italian Foreign Minister, Prinetti, a secret agreement was concluded between France and Italy, which provided for the mutual neutrality of France and Italy in the event that one of the parties becomes the object of an attack or, as a result of a direct challenge, is forced in defense, take the initiative to declare war.

Thus, despite the fact that Italy at the beginning of the First World War formally remained part of the Triple Alliance, colonial interests pushed its government, headed by Antonio Salandra, to join the Entente and enter the war on its side in 1915.

A. Salandra

NOTES
Cm.: Tirpitz A. Memories. M., 1957.
Cm.: Yerusalimsky A.S. Foreign policy and diplomacy of German imperialism at the end of the 19th century. M., 1951.
Klyuchnikov Yu.V., Sabanin A.V. International politics of modern times in treaties, notes and declarations. Part 1. M., 1925, p. 241-242, 254-255, 267-268. Cm.: Skazkin S.D. End of the Austro-Russian-German alliance. M., 1974.
Klyuchnikov Yu.V., Sabanin A.V., With. 241-242, 254-255, 267-268, 304-306. Cm.: Serova O.V. From the Triple Alliance to the Entente: Italian Foreign Policy and Diplomacy in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries. M., 1983.
New documents on the Alzheziras conference and the loan of 1906 // Red Archive. T. 1 (44). 1931, p. 161–165; International Relations in 1870–1918, p. 158–162. See: International relations in the era of imperialism. Ser. 2, vol. 18, parts 1–2. M.-L., 1938.
diplomacy. T. II. M., 1963, p. 698–703.
Collection of agreements between Russia and other states. 1856–1917 M., 1952, p. 405–407.
Cm.: Bulow B. German politics. P., 1917; he is. Memories. M.-L., 1935; German history in modern and contemporary times. T. 1. M., 1970.
Cm.: Popov V.T. The defeat of the Italians near Adua. M., 1938; Voblikov D.R. Ethiopia in the struggle to maintain independence. 1860–1960 M., 1961; Tsypkin G.V., Yagya V.S. Ethiopian history in modern and contemporary times. M., 1989; Berkeley G.-F.-H. The campaign of Adowa and the rise of Menelik, N.Y., 1969.
Egorin A.Z. History of Libya. 20th century M., 1999, p. 35–39. Cm.: Yakhimovich Z.P. Italo-Turkish War 1911–1912 M., 1967.
Egorin A.Z., With. 92–96.
Collection of agreements between Russia and other states. 1856–1917 M., 1952, p. 436–441. Cm.: Salandra A. Italy and the Great War. L., 1932.

World War I (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war is solved.

Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was rather ambiguous and extremely contradictory described in modern history. I specifically cited Chamberlain's words in the epigraph to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's ally in the war) says that one of the goals of the war has been achieved by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia!

The Balkan countries played an important role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policy (both foreign and domestic) was greatly influenced by England. Germany by that time had lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

• Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, New Zealand.
• Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later, the Bulgarian kingdom joined them, and the coalition became known as the Quadruple Union.

The following took part in the war major countries: Austria-Hungary (July 27, 1914 - November 3, 1918), Germany (August 1, 1914 - November 11, 1918), Turkey (October 29, 1914 - October 30, 1918), Bulgaria (October 14, 1915 - September 29, 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

Another important point. Initially, a member of the "Triple Alliance" was Italy. But after the outbreak of the First World War, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of World War I

The main reason for the outbreak of the First World War is the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years by exploiting the colonies, were no longer allowed to obtain resources simply by taking them away from the Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won back from each other. Therefore, contradictions arose:

• Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent the strengthening of German influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of naval dominance.
• Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which she had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
• Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
• Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Contradictions arose because of the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as the desire of Russia to subjugate the Bosporus and the Dardanelles.

Cause to start a war

The events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) served as the reason for the start of the First World War. On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand organization of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Frans Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the reason for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed a war throughout Europe. The British, at the level of the embassy, ​​convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia, in the event of aggression, should not leave Serbia without help. But then all (I emphasize this) the English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything so that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the reason for war

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaures, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had a great influence on Nicholas 2. I also want to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

• Gavrilo Principin. He died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
• Russian Ambassador to Serbia - Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
• Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
• In 1917 Hartley's correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.

All this indicates that there were a lot of black spots in the events of the days, which have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

The role of England in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since the forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the "July crisis" of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see attitude. English diplomacy came to the fore. By means of the press and secret diplomacy, she conveyed to Germany the position - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take the side of Germany. By open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 heard the opposite idea that in the event of a war, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement by England that she will not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything of the kind. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all her diplomacy, pushed the European countries to war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia reformed the army. In 1907, the fleet was reformed, and in 1910 the land forces were reformed. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total number of the army in peacetime was now 2 million people. In 1912, Russia adopts a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightfully called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to take personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in the war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past when the role of the cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all the losses of the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a sentence to the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never finished preparing for the war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

The balance of forces and means before and after the war

Artillery

According to the data from the table, it can be seen that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in terms of heavy guns. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, before the war created an excellent military industry, which produced 250,000 shells daily. For comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells a month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than in the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that heavy artillery would play a decisive role in the war.

Armament and military equipment

Production of weapons and equipment during the First World War (thousand units).

This table clearly shows the weakness of the Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all major indicators, Russia is far behind Germany, but also behind France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

Number of people (infantry)

The number of fighting infantry (millions of people).

The table shows that the smallest contribution, both in terms of combatants and in terms of deaths, was made by Great Britain to the war. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is illustrative. We are told in all textbooks that Austria-Hungary, due to heavy losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed Germany's help. But pay attention to Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are telling. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most efforts in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Brest peace for itself, losing a lot of land. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, in fact, having lost its independence.

The course of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement in the war of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed supreme commander.

In the first days of the beginning of the war, Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, and the capital could not have a name of German origin - "burg".

History reference

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany was under the threat of a war on two fronts: East - with Russia, West - with France. Then the German command developed the "Schlieffen plan", according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this is how much Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany had reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place, in which about 2 million people participated on both sides.

Northwestern front of Russia in 1914

Russia at the beginning of the war made a stupid thing that Germany could not calculate in any way. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops were successful, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern. The result - Germany repelled the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result, the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, though by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After that, a positional war began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by the troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people were killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After that, Austria-Hungary actually withdrew from the war, as it lost the ability to conduct independent operations. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional divisions to Galicia.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

• Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for blitzkrieg.
• No one managed to win a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events in 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, directing all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

The situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went into deep defense. Russian losses were gigantic:

• Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
• Captured - 900 thousand people

Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the "Triple Alliance" were convinced that Russia would not be able to recover from the losses it had received.

Germany's successes in this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

The situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

• 2.5 times in machine guns.
• 4.5 times in light artillery.
• 40 times in heavy artillery.

It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this sector of the front were gigantic: 150,000 killed, 700,000 wounded, 900,000 prisoners and 4 million refugees.

The situation on the western front

All is calm on the Western Front. This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France in 1915 proceeded. There were sluggish hostilities in which no one sought the initiative. Germany implemented plans in Eastern Europe, and England and France calmly mobilized the economy and the army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly appealed to France, first of all, so that she would switch to active operations on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him ... By the way, this sluggish war on the western front for Germany is perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “Farewell to Arms”.

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to withdraw Russia from the war, although all forces were thrown at it. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since in 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or a strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun meat grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France, with the aim of capturing Paris. For this, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the Verdun Meat Grinder. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name "Brusilovsky breakthrough". This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5th. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defense, but also to advance into its depths in places up to 120 kilometers. German and Austro-Hungarian losses were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and captured. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. They threw it, as usual, the allies. On August 27, 1916, Romania enters the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany very quickly inflicted a defeat on her. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2,000 kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

Positional battles continued on the North-Western Front in the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian front, here the main events continued from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzumur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

Outcome of 1916 in World War I

• The strategic initiative went over to the side of the Entente.
• The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the advance of the Russian army.
• Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
• Russia launched a powerful offensive - the Brusilovsky breakthrough.

Military and political events of 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. I will give an example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased by an average of 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - it turns out excellent ground for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States enters World War I. The positions of the "Triple Alliance" are deteriorating. Germany with allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

End of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, the Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov region. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but we set ourselves up completely.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. Issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years have not been resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to re-deploy troops here, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army actually ceased to exist. The front has collapsed. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.

People demanded that Russia withdraw from the war. And this was one of their main demands on the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the Decree "On Peace", in fact declaring Russia's withdrawal from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest Peace. The conditions of this world were as follows:

• Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
• Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
• Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters of territory, about 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industry were lost.

History reference

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war in 2 directions. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, in its course it became obvious that Germany was squeezing the maximum out of herself, and that she needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the autumn. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. The German army was completely ousted from France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria signed a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her position was hopeless, after the German allies in the "Triple Alliance" essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was deposed.

End of World War I

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in the forest of Compiègne, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

• Germany recognizes complete defeat in the war.
• The return of France to the province of Alsace and Lorraine to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
• Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and also pledged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
• For 15 years, the Entente troops are located on the left bank of the Rhine.
• By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay the members of the Entente (Russia was not supposed to do anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities, etc.
• For 30 years, Germany must pay reparations, and the amount of these reparations is set by the victors themselves and can increase them at any time during these 30 years.
• Germany was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army was obliged to be exclusively voluntary.

The terms of "peace" were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that the First World War, although it ended, did not end with peace, but with a truce for 30 years. And so it eventually happened ...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the total world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of which 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war, the political map of Europe changed significantly. There were such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Albania. Austria-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Increased their borders Romania, Greece, France, Italy. There were 5 countries that lost and lost in the territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918

Before the First World War, Germany was among the most industrialized countries in Europe in a number of economic and political indicators. Ultimately, the military construction and the active offensive foreign policy of Wilhelm II and his entourage largely contributed to the slide of the state to the World War. uniting the Germans under one roof. After that, his task was to eliminate the danger of a war on two fronts, which he considered obviously losing for the state. He was haunted by the nightmare of coalitions, which he tried to eliminate by categorically refusing to acquire colonies, which would inevitably significantly increase the risk of armed conflict in clashes with the interests of the colonial powers, primarily with England. He considered good relations with her a guarantee of Germany's security, and therefore he directed all his efforts to resolving internal problems . Bismarck, like Stein, Metternich and Leibniz before him, felt responsible for the course of history and understood the dangers of total war. But this was not perceived by him or his supporters as a need to change the status quo, but only as a threat to this order. In 1888, Emperor Wilhelm I died and his son, a supporter of the English constitutional order, a liberal-minded Angloman Frederick III, who was married to the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria, took his place. He was terminally ill with throat cancer and ruled for only 99 days. Nietzsche rightly considered his death "the greatest and fatal misfortune for Germany." With the death of Frederick III, hopes for a peaceful and liberal Germany in the center of Europe disappeared. Friedrich was replaced by a neurotic, poseur and visionary Wilhelm II, who hated his mother and everything English so much that immediately after his father's death he placed his mother under house arrest. He was convinced of its historical significance and, moreover, devoid of a sense of proportion, full of pompous arrogance and petty nitpicking. Wilhelm was unable to take advantage of the traditional British policy of isolationism (en. Splendid Isolation). His uncle, King Edward VII of Britain, called him "the most brilliant loser in all German history." Wilhelm, at the beginning of his career as head of state, claimed the title of "social emperor" and was even going to organize an international conference to discuss the condition of the workers. He was convinced that a mixture of social reforms, Protestantism and, in a certain proportion, anti-Semitism could distract the workers from socialist influence. Bismarck opposed this course because he believed that trying to make everyone happy all at once was absurd. However, the universal suffrage he introduced led to the fact that not only socialists, but also the majority of officials, politicians, military and businessmen did not support him, and on March 18, 1889, he resigned. Initially, society was encouraged by the words of the Kaiser: “The course remains unchanged. Full speed ahead." However, soon many began to realize that this was not so, and disappointment set in, and the personality of the Iron Chancellor, even during his lifetime, began to acquire mythical features. The era that began under Wilhelm I is called in the West "Wilhelmine" (German: Wilgelminische Ära) and was based on the unshakable foundation of the monarchy, the army, religion and faith in progress in all areas. Wilhelm's global claims were supported by Admiral Tirpitz (1849-1930), who was fascinated by the idea of ​​​​competing with the "mistress of the seas" Great Britain. He was a capable, knowledgeable, energetic officer with the gift of a demagogue. He organized an unparalleled, nationwide campaign to build a navy that was supposed to be twice the size of the British fleet and oust it from world trade. All classes of the country supported this idea, including socialists, since it guaranteed many workers jobs and relatively high salaries. Wilhelm willingly supported Tirpitz, not only because his activities fully corresponded to his global claims, but also because they were directed against parliament, or rather its left wing. Under him, the country continued the seizure of territories that had begun under Bismarck and against his will, mainly in Africa and showed interest in South America. At the same time, Wilhelm came into conflict with Bismarck, whom he dismissed in 1890. Lieutenant General von Caprivi became Chancellor. (Leo von Caprivi), head of the admiralty. He did not have enough political experience, but he understood that a powerful fleet was suicide for the state. He intended to follow the path of social reforms, limiting imperialist tendencies, and reducing the outflow of emigrants, mainly to the United States, which amounted to 100,000 people a year. He tried in every possible way to promote the export of manufactured goods, including to Russia in exchange for grain. In this way, he aroused the dissatisfaction of the agrarian lobby, which was the backbone of the German economy and insisted in the time of Bismarck on a protectionist policy. The imperialist layers were dissatisfied with the policy pursued by the Chancellor, who questioned the expediency of exchanging Zanzibar for Heligoland, carried out by Bismarck. Caprivi made attempts to reach a consensus with the socialists, primarily with the influential SPD party in the Reichstag -SPD. Due to the resistance of the extreme right and the Kaiser, he failed to integrate the Social Democrats (whom Wilhelm called "a gang of bandits who do not deserve to be called Germans"), into political life empires. In 1892, Russia began to move closer to France, initially on military issues, and the following year a trade agreement was concluded. Russia stated that for those states that do not grant Russia the status of a most favored nation country, import tariffs will be raised by 20 to 30 percent. In response, the upper house of the German parliament raised tariffs on Russian goods, including grain, by 50%. In turn, Russia practically closed its ports to German ships, significantly raising port dues. The Russian fleet visited Toulon in 1893, and after that a military treaty was concluded with France. Since Germany was the most important trading partner for Russia, this tariff war hurt the economies of both countries, and therefore, already in 1894, it ended with a mutual agreement on granting each other the most favored nation treatment. But the military alliance with France remained in force. In 1892, the Prussian Minister of Education introduced a proposal to reform the school by increasing the influence of the church, which reflected the opinion of the Kaiser and the parties of the center and was aimed at maintaining traditional values ​​​​against newfangled trends such as socialism. But the liberals managed to win under the flag of the struggle against the infringement of academic freedom. This cost Caprivi his post as prime minister, and Botho Wendt August Graf zu Eulenburg, an extreme conservative, became prime minister. The order of combining the posts of chancellor and prime minister that existed under Bismarck was violated, which led to fatal consequences. Two years later, Eulenburg introduced the Anti-Revolutionary Bill to the upper house (Bundesrat), which obviously could not pass in the Lower House (Reichstag). The Kaiser, who feared palace coup fired both. This Bill provoked a fierce debate in the newly built Reichstag building (1894) between representatives of the authoritarian state and the right wing of the liberals on the one hand and supporters of the democratic style of government characteristic of parliamentary democracy on the other. At the same time, this meant that Wilhelm no longer portrayed himself as a "social Kaiser" and stood on the side of the representatives of industrial capital, who disposed of his enterprises in the same way as a Junker disposed of on his estate. Strikers were subject to imprisonment and any movement towards socialism was suppressed. Anti-socialists and anti-Semites entrenched in the government. However, there was no unity among the right. Finance Minister Miquel created a coalition of right-wing forces under the slogan of "concentration policy" (Sammlungspolitik) of farmers and industry representatives, who often had different goals. So industrial circles supported the construction of canals, which Wilhelm himself was a supporter of, but this was opposed by the agrarians, who feared that cheap grain would flow through these channels. These disagreements served as an argument in favor of the fact that Germany needed socialists, if only to ensure the passage of laws in the Reichstag. Significant divergences from the traditions of Bismarck became apparent in the field of foreign policy, which accompanied the formation of German imperialism. Bernhard von Bülow, who became foreign minister in 1897, declared in parliament: The time when the Germans left Germany, leaving for neighboring countries, and left in their property only the sky above their heads, it ended ... We are not going to keep anyone in the shade, but we ourselves demand a place under the sun. Having become chancellor in 1900, he managed to get funding from the parliament for the construction program of the navy. In 1895, the construction of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal (Kiel Canal) was completed and the German fleet got the opportunity to quickly move to the Baltic Sea from the North Sea and back. In 1906, the British built the battleship Dreadnought. Immediately made the battleships of the whole world obsolete. At the same time, the Kiel Canal became too narrow for dreadnought-type ships. And this put the German navy in an exceptionally difficult position. Tension began to arise in society, caused, on the one hand, by an uncritical belief in unlimited technical progress and a fear deeply embedded in the ideology of the bourgeoisie that the situation could suddenly and soon change for the worse, on the other. who will build new world on the ruins of the old, took root and was not forgotten. In 1907, by concluding an agreement in St. Petersburg, the formation of the Triple Military Alliance was completed between Russia, France, which had unexpectedly quickly strengthened after the defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, and worried about the growth of the German navy and forced to leave from isolation by England, which, at the suggestion of the French prime minister, received the name (French l'Entente cordiale ("cordial consent")). This alliance (Entente) was directed against the states of central Europe - Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (which had a secret agreement with France and eventually withdrew from this agreement) At the meeting of Wilhelm II and Nicholas II in Björkö (Koivisto), an agreement was reached on mutual assistance if one of the countries is attacked. At the same time, it was assumed that France would also join this agreement. Quickly realizing the absurdity of these expectations, Russia withdrew its promises. The German elite considered this an insult and began preparing for war.
In 1909, Theobald von Bethman-Hollweg became Reich Chancellor, who tried to ensure the neutrality of England in a war that he considered so inevitable that he did not support the plan to build defensive structures in the east, where his estate was located. He believed that in the near future it would be in the hands of the Russians. In February 1912, the English Prime Minister Lord Haldane visited Berlin, promising that England would remain neutral in a future German war if the Germans reduced their shipbuilding program. And this was also taken as a national insult in Germany. In the same year, Serbia and Bulgaria, with Greece and Macedonia joining them, began to oust Turkey from Europe. This was enthusiastically supported by Russia. For Austria-Hungary, the success of this activity was even more dangerous than the presence of the Turks, since the Serbs could create a naval base in the Mediterranean. Bethmann Hollweg warned Russia that she was playing with fire. The British declared that they would not tolerate a German attack on France. An independent state was created - Albania, which blocked Serbia from the sea. The logic of events led to a European war

Bismarck Alfred Tirpitz Leo von Caprivi Botho zu Eulenburg Bernard von Bülow Theobald Bethmann von Hollweg

Martin Kitchen. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany:-Cambridge University Press 1996 ISBN 0-521-45341-0 Results of World War II. Sat. articles ed. gen.-m. N. I. Soboleva. Preface. M.: Publishing House of Foreign Literature. 1957. Die Bilanz des 20. Jahrhunderts. Harenbergs Kommunikation Verlags-und Mediengesellschaft mbH & Co.KG, Dortmund 1991. ISBN 3-611-00199-6

AT 1905–1914 there was a further aggravation of contradictions between the leading world powers. The German threat to the colonial possessions of England and France contributed to the strengthening of the Franco-Russian alliance and forced England to seek rapprochement with Russia. In the ruling circles of Russia, two groups have formed on foreign policy issues - pro-German and pro-British. Nicholas II showed indecision. Ultimately, he supported the line of rapprochement with England, which was largely facilitated by the influence of France, Russia's ally and main creditor, as well as Germany's claims to Polish and Baltic lands. In February 1907, three conventions between Russia and England were signed in St. Petersburg, delimiting spheres of influence in the East. These agreements, in fact, completed the formation of the military-political bloc of the countries of the Triple Entente (Entente) - France, England, Russia. At the same time, Russia did not want an aggravation of relations with Germany. In July 1907, a meeting took place between Nikolai and Wilhelm, at which it was decided to maintain the status quo in the Baltic Sea. In 1910, at the next meeting, an oral agreement was reached that Russia would not support the anti-German actions of England, and Germany would not support the anti-Russian steps of Austria-Hungary. In 1911, a Russian-German agreement was signed on the delimitation of spheres of influence in Turkey and Iran. The Balkan Wars (1912-1913) exacerbated the contradictions between the Triple Alliance and the Entente, which fought for allies in the Balkan Peninsula. The Entente supported Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Romania, the Austro-German bloc supported Turkey and Bulgaria. Relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary became especially aggravated. The first was supported by Russia, the second by Germany.

The last pre-war years were marked by an unprecedented arms race. Germany completed its military program already by 1914. After another coup in Turkey, pro-German forces came to power, which led to the strengthening of German positions in this region. Germany began to actually control the Black Sea straits. In mid-June 1914, Emperor Wilhelm advised Franz Joseph to take advantage of any opportunity and attack Serbia. The Austro-German bloc counted on Russia's unpreparedness for war and on England's neutrality. The reason for the unleashing of a world war was the murder of the heir to the Austrian throne by Serbian nationalists.

Russia in World War I

P The First World War was of an aggressive nature: the countries of the Entente and the Triple Alliance that participated in it fought for the redivision of the world, for spheres of influence. Russia's position was no exception. Its interests extended to the territory of the Balkans, as well as to the Black Sea straits and Constantinople. Owning them made it possible to freely access the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the struggle was against the economic expansion of Germany.

The Russian government was counting on a quick and victorious end to the war, so military supplies were prepared for a three-month campaign. In response to the aggression of Austria-Hungary against Serbia, on July 30, 1914, Nicholas II announced mobilization.

Ad August 1, 1914 The war with Germany caused an upsurge in national-patriotic sentiments in Russian society, which led to the rallying of the people and power. The revolutionary movement that began in 1912 began to decline sharply, and the opposition factions in the State Duma (except for the Bolsheviks) declared themselves in favor of full support for the government. This state of social harmony did not last long. Already in 1915, after the first defeats of the Russian army, conflicts between the autocracy and the opposition resumed.

Major Operations on the Eastern Front.

1914 East Prussian operation (4 (17) August - 2 (15) September). The purpose of the operation is to defeat the 8th German army, seize East Prussia to develop an offensive deep into German territory. The inconsistency of the actions of the Russian armies (General P.K. Rannenkampf and General A.V. Samsonov) led to the defeat and withdrawal of the Russian troops. 50 thousand soldiers were captured and killed.

Battle of Galicia (5 (18) August - 8 (21) September). Became one of the biggest events of the war: fighting fought on a front of 400 km. The losses of Austria-Hungary amounted to 400 thousand people, Russia - 230 thousand. Russian troops managed not only to repel the offensive of four Austro-Hungarian armies in Galicia and Poland, but also create a threat of invasion into Hungary and Silesia. The enemy failed to impose a "blitzkrieg" on Russia and achieve decisive successes already at the initial stage of the war.

Warsaw-Ivangorod operation (September 15 (28) - October 26 (November 8)). Saving the allies from complete defeat, Germany transferred troops to Upper Silesia, and also launched an offensive against Ivangorod and Warsaw. Almost half of the Russian forces took part in repelling the offensive. As a result, the German offensive was stopped and the enemy was driven back to their original positions.

Lodz operation (October 29 (November 11) - November 11 (24). Command German army tried to encircle and destroy the 2nd and 5th Russian armies in the Lodz region. The Russians managed not only to resist, but also to push back the enemy.

1915 In winter, Germany went on the defensive on the Western Front and transferred the main military operations to the Eastern Front. Its main task was to withdraw Russia from the war. Already in the winter campaign of 1915, up to 50% of all armed forces Germany and Austria-Hungary. In May, Russian troops left Galicia. By the end of the 1915 campaign, Russian troops were forced to leave significant territories: Poland, part of the Baltic states, Western Ukraine and Western Belarus. By the end of the year, the front passed along the line Riga - Dvinsk - Baranovichi - Pinsk - Dubno - Tarnopol.

1916 Naroch operation (5 (18) - 16 (29) March). The need for this operation was caused by the desire to alleviate the situation of the French in the Verdun area. The operation did not lead to success, but the Germans were forced to transfer about four divisions to the Eastern Front.

Brusilovsky breakthrough (May 22 (June 4) - July 31 (August 13)). Russian forces under the command of General A.A. Brusilov carried out a powerful breakthrough of the front in the region of Lutsk and Kovel, in a short time they occupied Bukovina and reached the passes of the Carpathian Mountains. The Austro-Hungarian troops were defeated, their losses amounted to 1.5 million people. Austria-Hungary was on the verge of complete defeat and exit from the war. To save the situation, Germany withdrew 34 divisions from the French and Italian fronts. Russian troops lost about 500 thousand people.

Mitavskaya operation (December 23-29 (January 5-11, 1917)). The offensive of the Russian troops in the Riga area was unexpected for the Germans. Nevertheless, they not only stopped the Russian 12th Army, but also forced it to retreat from its previous positions. For Russia, the Mitav operation ended in vain. Killed, wounded and captured lost 23 thousand people.

1917 June offensive (16 (29) June - 15 (28) July). Undertaken by the military command of the Provisional Government along the entire front. Due to the fall in discipline and the growth of anti-war sentiment in the troops, it ended in complete failure. Losses amounted to about 30 thousand people.

Riga operation (August 19 (September 1) - August 24 (September 6)). Offensive German troops with the aim of capturing Riga. On the night of August 21 (September 3), the 12th Russian army left Riga, having lost about 25 thousand people.

It should be noted that the Eastern Front played the role of a "savior" for the Western Front. So it was in 1914, when, at the request of the allies, without completing the mobilization, the Russian troops launched an offensive in East Prussia, which ended with the death of the army of General Samsonov. The activity of the Russians forced the German command to make adjustments to A. von Schlieffen's plan and transfer troops from the Western Front, which helped the French win the Battle of the Marne and save Paris. Turkey's entry into the war on the side of Germany and the closure of the Black Sea straits effectively cut Russia off from world markets and placed it under conditions of an economic blockade. The years 1915-1916 can be considered unsuccessful for the Russian army. With the exception of a successful offensive in May-June 1916 in Galicia (Brusilovsky breakthrough), all attacking operations of the Russian troops ended in heavy losses and failure. Already in 1915, Lithuania, Poland and Galicia were occupied by enemy troops. However, the situation was not hopeless. While reserves were being prepared in the rear, the Russian army successfully held the front until mid-1917, not letting the enemy into the central provinces.

The reasons for military failures are related to the general socio-economic situation in Russia. The main reason is the inability of Russian industry and transport to meet the needs of the front (in 1915, the provision of Russian artillery with ammunition was only 10%). At the initiative of the public, in May 1915, the Central Military Industrial Committee (MIC) was created, headed by A.I. Guchkov (see military-industrial committees), who was engaged in the distribution of military orders between large enterprises. The joint activities of the military-industrial complex, the All-Russian Zemstvo Union and the All-Russian Union of Cities (Zemgor), created in July 1915, contributed to the improvement of the supply of the army and medical and sanitary affairs by the end of 1916 - the beginning of 1917. Large stocks of weapons and ammunition were created. The activity of public organizations emphasized the inability of the official authorities to organize the conduct of the war and the supply of large cities with fuel and food. "Ministerial leapfrog", influence at the court of G.E. Rasputin, the inability of the autocrat, who was at headquarters in Mogilev, to quickly manage the country - all this undermined the authority of the authorities. At a meeting on November 13, 1916, the Duma regarded the activities of the government as "stupidity or treason" and demanded that the tsar create a new cabinet, responsible not to him, but to the Duma.

Already after the overthrow of the autocracy, in June 1917, the Provisional Government tried to organize an offensive at the front. Due to the decline of military discipline, this offensive ended in complete failure. The inability to wage war, as well as the desire of the Bolshevik government to stay in power by any means, led to the signing March 3, 1918 humiliating Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. On this day, Russia's participation in the First World War ended.

OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS

On the impact of the First World War on the socio-political situation in Russia.

This issue does not cause alternative approaches, however, representatives of numerous historical schools focus on various aspects of the identified problem. So, Soviet historians consider the situation that has developed in Russia solely from the standpoint of its usefulness for the revolution. The hardships of the war exacerbated the social contradictions that were not resolved by the government after the revolution of 1905–1907. The war gave weapons to the proletariat and peasantry, which made it easier to carry out an armed uprising. The unsuccessful conduct of hostilities, the protracted nature of the war and numerous casualties contributed to the fall in the authority of the authorities, the aggravation of class contradictions and the growth of discontent among the general population. All of the above aspects helped the revolutionary party to turn the "imperialist war into a civil war."

Without denying the statements of historians of the Marxist school, modern historical science focuses on the moral aspects of the problem. Analyzing the documents of that era, researchers come to the conclusion that the First World War tore millions of people out of their natural environment, turned them into marginals, and taught them how to kill. Human life depreciated, people got used to death and suffering. Only a strong social organism could cope with this situation and return the people to normal life. Russian state it was not. The horrors of the war have led many prominent politicians from the liberal and revolutionary camps to believe that the old world, which gave rise to these horrors, has exhausted itself.

Before the First World War, Germany was among the most industrialized countries in Europe in a number of economic and political indicators. Ultimately, military construction and the active offensive foreign policy of Wilhelm II and his entourage largely contributed to the slide of the state to the World War

Otto von Bismarck, who created the Second Reich with “iron and blood” (a small one without Austria), to a large extent satisfied the long-standing need to unite the Germans under one roof. After that, his task was to eliminate the danger of a war on two fronts, which he considered obviously losing for the state. He was haunted by the nightmare of coalitions, which he tried to eliminate by categorically refusing to acquire colonies, which would inevitably significantly increase the risk of armed conflict in clashes with the interests of the colonial powers, primarily with England. He considered good relations with her a guarantee of Germany's security, and therefore directed all his efforts to solving internal problems.

Bismarck, like Stein, Metternich and Leibniz before him, felt responsible for the course of history and understood the dangers of total war. But this was not perceived by him or his supporters as a need to change the status quo, but only as a threat to this order.

In 1888, Emperor Wilhelm I died and his son, a supporter of the English constitutional order, a liberal-minded Angloman Frederick III, who was married to the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria, took his place. He was terminally ill with throat cancer and ruled for only 99 days. Nietzsche rightly considered his death "the greatest and fatal misfortune for Germany." With the death of Frederick III, hopes for a peaceful and liberal Germany in the center of Europe disappeared.

Friedrich was replaced by the neurotic, poseur and visionary Wilhelm II, who hated his mother and everything English so much that immediately after the death of his father he put his mother under house arrest. He was convinced of his historical significance and, moreover, devoid of a sense of proportion, full of pompous arrogance and petty nitpicking. Wilhelm was unable to take advantage of the traditional British policy of isolationism (en. Splendid Isolation). His uncle, King Edward VII of Britain, called him "the most brilliant loser in all German history."

Wilhelm, at the beginning of his career as head of state, claimed the title of "social emperor" and was even going to organize an international conference to discuss the condition of the workers. He was convinced that a mixture of social reforms, Protestantism and, in a certain proportion, anti-Semitism could distract the workers from socialist influence. Bismarck opposed this course because he believed that trying to make everyone happy all at once was absurd. However, the universal suffrage he introduced led to the fact that not only socialists, but also the majority of officials, politicians, military and businessmen did not support him, and on March 18, 1889, he resigned. Initially, society was encouraged by the words of the Kaiser: “The course remains unchanged. Full speed ahead." However, soon many began to realize that this was not so, and disappointment set in, and the personality of the Iron Chancellor, even during his lifetime, began to acquire mythical features.

The era that began under Wilhelm I is called in the West "Wilhelmine" (German: Wilgelminische Ära) and was based on the unshakable foundation of the monarchy, the army, religion and faith in progress in all areas.

Wilhelm's global claims were supported by Admiral Tirpitz (1849-1930), who was fascinated by the idea of ​​​​competing with the "mistress of the seas" Great Britain. He was a capable, knowledgeable, energetic officer with the gift of a demagogue. He organized an unparalleled, nationwide campaign to build a navy that was supposed to be twice the size of the British fleet and oust it from world trade. All classes of the country supported this idea, including socialists, since it guaranteed many workers jobs and relatively high salaries.

Wilhelm willingly supported Tirpitz, not only because his activities fully corresponded to his global claims, but also because they were directed against parliament, or rather its left wing. Under him, the country continued the seizure of territories that had begun under Bismarck and against his will, mainly in Africa, and showed interest in South America.

At the same time, Wilhelm came into conflict with Bismarck, whom he fired in 1890. Lieutenant General von Caprivi became Chancellor. (Leo von Caprivi), head of the admiralty. He did not have enough political experience, but he understood that a powerful fleet was suicide for the state. He intended to follow the path of social reforms, limiting imperialist tendencies, and reducing the outflow of emigrants, mainly to the United States, which amounted to 100,000 people a year. He tried in every possible way to promote the export of manufactured goods, including to Russia in exchange for grain. In this way, he aroused the dissatisfaction of the agrarian lobby, which was the backbone of the German economy and insisted in the time of Bismarck on a protectionist policy.

The policy pursued by the chancellor was dissatisfied with the imperialist layers, who questioned the expediency of exchanging Zanzibar for Helgoland, carried out by Bismarck.

Caprivi made attempts to reach a consensus with the socialists, primarily with the influential SPD party in the Reichstag. Due to the resistance of the extreme right and the Kaiser, he failed to integrate the Social Democrats (whom Wilhelm called "a gang of bandits who do not deserve to be called Germans") into the political life of the empire.

In 1892, a rapprochement between Russia and France began, initially on military issues, and the following year a trade agreement was concluded. Russia stated that for those states that do not grant Russia the status of a most favored nation country, import tariffs will be raised by 20 to 30 percent. In response, the upper house of the German parliament raised tariffs on Russian goods, including grain, by 50%. In turn, Russia practically closed its ports to German ships, significantly raising port dues. The Russian fleet visited Toulon in 1893, and after that a military treaty was concluded with France. Since Germany was the most important trading partner for Russia, this tariff war hurt the economies of both countries, and therefore, already in 1894, it ended with a mutual agreement on granting each other the most favored nation treatment. But the military alliance with France remained in force.

In 1892, the Prussian Minister of Education introduced a proposal to reform the school by increasing the influence of the church, which reflected the opinion of the Kaiser and the parties of the center and was aimed at maintaining traditional values ​​​​against newfangled trends such as socialism. But the liberals managed to win under the flag of the struggle against the infringement of academic freedom. This cost Caprivi his post as prime minister, and Botho Wendt August Graf zu Eulenburg, an extreme conservative, became prime minister. The order that existed under Bismarck to combine the posts of chancellor and prime minister was violated, which led to fatal consequences.

Two years later, Eulenburg introduced the “Anti-Revolutionary Bill” to the upper house (Bundesrat), which obviously could not pass in the Lower House (Reichstag). The Kaiser, who feared a palace coup, dismissed both. This Bill provoked a fierce debate in the newly built Reichstag building (1894) between representatives of the authoritarian state and the right wing of the liberals on the one hand and supporters of the democratic style of government characteristic of parliamentary democracy on the other. At the same time, this meant that Wilhelm no longer portrayed himself as a "social Kaiser" and stood on the side of the representatives of industrial capital, who disposed of his enterprises in the same way as a Junker disposed of on his estate. Strikers were subject to imprisonment and any movement towards socialism was suppressed. Anti-socialists and anti-Semites entrenched in the government.

However, there was no unity among the right. Finance Minister Miquel created a coalition of right-wing forces under the slogan of "concentration policy" (Sammlungspolitik) of farmers and industry representatives, who often had different goals. So industrial circles supported the construction of canals, which Wilhelm himself was a supporter of, but this was opposed by the agrarians, who feared that cheap grain would flow through these channels. These disagreements served as an argument in favor of the fact that Germany needed socialists, if only to ensure the passage of laws in the Reichstag.

Significant divergences from the traditions of Bismarck became apparent in the field of foreign policy, which accompanied the formation of German imperialism. Bernhard von Bülow, who became foreign minister in 1897, declared in Parliament:

The time when the Germans left Germany, leaving for neighboring countries, and left only the sky over their heads as their property, is over ... We are not going to keep anyone in the shade, but we ourselves demand a place in the sun.

Having become chancellor in 1900, he managed to get funding from the parliament for the construction program of the navy. In 1895, the construction of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal (Kiel Canal) was completed and the German fleet was able to quickly move to the Baltic Sea from the North Sea and back.

In 1906, the British built the battleship Dreadnought. Immediately made the battleships of the whole world obsolete. At the same time, the Kiel Canal became too narrow for dreadnought-type ships. And this put the German navy in an exceptionally difficult position.

Tension began to arise in society, caused, on the one hand, by an uncritical belief in unlimited technical progress and a fear deeply rooted in the ideology of the bourgeoisie that the situation could suddenly and in the near future change for the worse, on the other.